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(Stroke. 1997;28:1550-1556.)
© 1997 American Heart Association, Inc.

Articles

Effects of Intensity of Rehabilitation After Stroke

A Research Synthesis

Gert Kwakkel, MSc; Robert C. Wagenaar, PhD; Tim W. Koelman, PT; Gustaaf J. Lankhorst, MD, PhD Johan C. Koetsier, MD, PhD

From the Department of Physical Therapy and Research Institute for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement Sciences (G.K., R.C.W., T.W.K.), Department of Rehabilitation (G.J.L.), and Department of Neurology (J.C.K.), University Hospital Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

	Abstract

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Background and Purpose A research synthesis was performed to (1) critically review controlled studies evaluating effects of different intensities of stroke rehabilitation in terms of disabilities and impairments and (2) quantify patterns by calculating summary effect sizes. The influences of organizational setting of rehabilitation management, blind recording, and amount of rehabilitation on the summary effect sizes were calculated.

Methods A Medline literature search was performed for a critical review of the literature. The internal and external validity of the studies was evaluated. In addition, a meta-analysis was performed by applying the fixed (Hedges's g) effects model.

Results The effects of different intensities of rehabilitation were studied in nine controlled studies involving 1051 patients. Analysis of the methodological quality revealed scores varying from 14% to 47% of the maximum feasible score. Meta-analysis demonstrated a statistically significant summary effect size for activities of daily living (0.28±0.12). Lower summary effect sizes (0.19±0.17) were found for studies in which experimental and control groups were treated in the same setting compared with studies in which the two groups of patients were treated in different settings (0.40±0.19). Variables defined on a neuromuscular level (0.37±0.24) showed larger summary effect sizes than variables defined on a functional level (0.10±0.21). Weighting individual effect sizes for the difference in amount of rehabilitation between experimental and control groups resulted in larger summary effect sizes for activities of daily living and functional outcome parameters for studies that were not confounded by organizational setting.

Conclusions A small but statistically significant intensity-effect relationship in the rehabilitation of stroke patients was found. Insufficient contrast in the amount of rehabilitation between experimental and control conditions, organizational setting of rehabilitation management, lack of blinding procedures, and heterogeneity of patient characteristics were major confounding factors.

Key Words: activities of daily living • cerebrovascular disorders • meta-analysis • rehabilitation

	Introduction

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
In a 1989 review of efficacy of rehabilitation after stroke, Dobkin¹ asserted that "convincing evidence concerning the therapeutic usefulness of stroke rehabilitation does not yet exist." Other reviewers claim that any of the available approaches in physical and occupational therapy will improve the patient's functional status,^{2 3} although spontaneous neurological recovery appears to account for most of the improvement in functional ability.^{4 5} Wagenaar and Meyer^{6 7} concluded that the effects of rehabilitation methods are highly specific, indicating that improvements on the impairment level do not generalize to disabilities (ADL). In addition, they found that expert care has a positive effect on functional recovery compared with traditional care. However, in their opinion it remains unclear which part of expert care (eg, team care, active family participation, special staff education, early start of treatment, and/or intensity of treatment) has caused this effect. Recently, Gladman and colleagues⁸ stated that "till so far the knowledge about what it is in the `black box' of a stroke unit that is effective is lacking." The results of a few controlled studies suggest that an early start of intensive treatment is an important aspect of expert care.^{4 6 7}

Langhorne et al^{9 10 11} showed in a meta-analysis combining the findings of 10 randomized controlled trials that stroke rehabilitation wards statistically significantly reduce mortality (approximately 28%) in comparison to general medical wards. In a similar approach, Ottenbacher and Jarnell¹² demonstrated that programs of focused stroke rehabilitation may improve functional performance for some patients who have sustained a stroke. They have combined the findings of 36 studies on the effects of stroke rehabilitation wards as well as different methods of rehabilitation in one summary effect size.

In a more recent meta-analysis, Langhorne et al¹³ combined the results of seven randomized trials on the effects of different intensities of physical therapy and reported a small but significant reduction in mortality as well as significant improvements in ADL and impairments as a result of higher intensities of treatment. Sensitivity analysis revealed that the organizational setting in which the physiotherapy was delivered was an important confounding factor; studies in which the experimental and control conditions were applied in different settings (confounded studies) resulted in a smaller overall treatment effect than studies carried out in one setting (unconfounded studies).

The purpose of this article was to add a critical review of studies evaluating the efficacy of different intensities of stroke rehabilitation to trace variables that may influence rehabilitation outcome. The impact of these factors was then analyzed by including them as an independent variable in the calculation of the summary effect size. Since the present study includes two more studies than the analysis of Langhorne et al,¹³ first the effect size of different intensities of rehabilitation in terms of disabilities and impairments will be evaluated.

	Materials and Methods

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Study Identification
A Medline literature search was performed for the period 1966 to 1995 (CD-ROM, Medical Subject Headings, volume 36, 1996). We used the key words (MeSH) stroke, cerebrovascular disorders, dose-response relationship, effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, rehabilitation, therapy, physical therapy, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and exercise therapy. References presented in relevant publications were examined, and abstracts published in proceedings of conferences were searched. Investigators of studies were contacted if more information about the trial was needed. Studies had to meet the following criteria: (1) patients suffering from a stroke are studied; (2) the effects of different intensities of PT and/or OT are evaluated; (3) the study concerns true or quasi-experimentation¹⁴ ; (4) the rehabilitation outcome is measured in terms of ADL; and (5) the study is published in a journal or book.

Critical Review
A methodological quality score was developed with items recommended by the Potsdam standards¹⁵ and other investigators in this field^{16 17 18 19 20} to identify independent variables (eg, elements of study design and contrast in amount of therapy) that might modify the overall effect size.

The following items were evaluated: (1) randomization or matching procedures; (2) blinding procedures; (3) description of dropouts and intention-to-treat analysis; (4) reliability and validity of assessment instruments; (5) control for cointervention(s); (6) comparability of baseline patient characteristics; and (7) control for amount of therapy (see "Appendix"). To each item a binary weight (0/1) was attached. In total 16 items were scored. Two reviewers (G.K., E. van Wegen) assessed the methodological quality of each study independently. Names of author(s), institution(s), and journal were masked to establish independent extraction of relevant data. Interrater reliability of individual items was assessed with Cohen's with adjustment for tied ranks. In a meeting the reviewers tried to accomplish agreement on differences in scoring. When disagreement persisted, a third reviewer (R.C.W.) made the final decision.

Summary Effect Sizes
The effect size g_i (Hedges's g) of each individual study was calculated by the difference between means of experimental and control group divided by the average population standard deviation (SD_i).²¹ To estimate SD_i for g_i's, baseline estimate standard deviations of control and experimental groups were pooled.^{21 22} Alternatively, Hedges's g_i estimates were obtained from probability and t values.²³ Since the g_i's tend to overestimate the population effect size in studies with a small number of patients, a correction was made to obtain an unbiased estimator g^u.^{21 23} The impact of sample size was addressed by estimating a weighting factor w_i for each study, assigning larger weights to effect sizes from studies with larger study samples and thus smaller variances. Subsequently, g^u's of individual studies were averaged, resulting in a weighted summary effect size (^u).^{21 22 23 24} Finally, the w_i's were combined to estimate the variance of the summary effect size ^u.²⁴

On the disability level, effect size ^u was computed for global outcome of ADL (eg, Barthel Index score) as well as separate domains of functional outcome (eg, dexterity, walking performance, and walking velocity). On the impairment level, neuromuscular outcome variables were used for assessing recovery of hemiplegia (eg, muscle strength and synergism).

In one study the effects of three treatment conditions were compared.²⁵ Only the comparisons of the two experimental conditions with the control condition were included. Including two of three possible comparisons in one overall summary effect size would have introduced "dependency of findings," which would violate further statistics. Therefore, summary effect sizes were also calculated including each comparison from the same study separately.

The homogeneity (or heterogeneity) test statistic (Q statistic) of each set of effect sizes was examined to determine whether studies shared a common effect size of which the variance could be explained by sampling error alone.^{21 26} The fixed effects model was used to decide whether a summary effect size was statistically significant.^{27 28} If a significant heterogeneity in summary effect sizes was found, a random effects model was applied.

Post hoc analyses were performed for the organizational setting of rehabilitation management,¹³ the amount of rehabilitation given in the experimental and control group, and the effects of blinding. The post hoc analysis for organizational setting was performed by comparing the summary effect sizes of studies in which all patients were treated in the same setting of rehabilitation with those studies in which experimental and control groups were treated in different settings. In a similar vein, a post hoc analysis for blinding was performed.

A sensitivity analysis was performed on the amount of rehabilitation by weighting the additional time spent (t_i) on PT and OT in the experimental group compared with the control group by dividing the difference by the total amount of rehabilitation in the experimental group. In this way, studies with a proportionally greater difference in amount of rehabilitation between groups were given more weight than studies in which this contrast was small. For all outcome variables, the critical value for rejecting H₀ was set at .05.

	Results

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
A total of 11 studies (3 preexperiments,^{28 29 30} 1 quasi- experiment,³¹ and 8 true experiments^{25 32 33 34 35 36 37 38} ) were identified as being relevant (Table 1). The preexperiments were excluded because of a lack of experimental control.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 1. Study Characteristics of Trials on Intensity of Stroke Rehabilitation

Critical Review
The results of the methodological quality score of the 9 trials involving 1051 patients are presented in Table 2. Initially there was disagreement between two independent reviewers on 10 (7%) of the 144 criteria scored. Cohen's was 0.86. The methodological quality score varied from 13%^{32 33 34} to 47%^{35 37 38} of the maximum feasible score.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 2. Application of Methodological Criteria to Studies Investigating the Effects of Intensity of Rehabilitation

Eight studies were classified as randomized trials,^{25 32 33 34 35 36 37 38} of which only 2 studies reported the method of randomization.^{33 34} The observers were blinded in 4 studies,^{35 36 37 38} and dropouts were described for experimental and control groups separately in 7 studies.^{25 33 34 35 36 37 38} However, none of these controlled trials reported intercurrent dropouts or applied an intention-to-treat analysis. Three studies were confounded by the organizational setting. In 3 studies the patients in the experimental and control groups were comparable for age, initial ADL index, and type of stroke.^{35 36 37}

On average, the intensive rehabilitation group received daily almost twice as much PT (ie, 48.4 minutes) and OT (ie, 44 minutes) as the control group (ie, 23.4 and 18.5 minutes, respectively) (Table 1). However, this difference in amount of rehabilitation was larger in the unconfounded studies (n=6)^{25 32 35 36 37 38} than in confounded studies (n=3).^{31 33 34} The contrast t_i between rehabilitation intensities of unconfounded and confounded studies was 0.68 and 0.34, respectively.

Meta-analysis
ADL
The unbiased overall summary effect size ^u for the 9 studies was 0.28 (CI, ±0.12) SDU (Fig 1 and Table 3). The test statistic for heterogeneity was not statistically significant. Controlling for dependency of estimated effect sizes as a result of including two multiple comparisons from the study of Smith et al²⁵ showed almost similar summary effect sizes (0.28 to 0.26 SDU) as well as standard errors (±0.13). Weighting each study by factor t_i resulted in a slight increase of overall summary effect size ^u from 0.28 (CI, ±0.12) to 0.34 (CI, ±0.15) SDU (Table 3).

View larger version (17K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. Ninety-five percent CIs of effect sizes for outcome of ADL. Positive effect sizes indicate that intensive rehabilitation was more effective for ADL than control conditions; negative effect sizes indicate that the control regimen was more effective.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 3. Categorical Fixed Effects Model for Confounded and Unconfounded Studies Investigating the Effects of Intensity of Rehabilitation in Terms of ADL

The summary effect sizes ^u for unconfounded and confounded studies were 0.19 (CI, ±0.17) and 0.40 (CI, ±0.19) SDU, respectively (Table 3). No significant heterogeneity was found for confounded and unconfounded studies separately or between these two groups of studies. Controlling for dependency of estimated effect sizes as a result of including two multiple comparisons from the study of Smith et al²⁵ decreased the summary effect sizes of unconfounded studies to 0.12 (CI, ±0.18) and 0.19 SDU (CI, ±0.17), respectively.

A marked difference was observed in overall effect size for ADL in studies with and without blind assessment recording, that is, 0.05 (CI, ±0.23) versus 0.38 (CI, ±0.23). Three of 5 studies in which assessment was not blinded were confounded by management of experimental and control groups at separate locations.

Weighting each study by a factor t_i resulted for the unconfounded studies in a statistically significant summary effect size ^u for ADL; that is, ^u increased from 0.19 (CI, ±0.17) to 0.25 (CI, ±0.19) SDU (Table 3). The unbiased summary effect size of confounded studies changed from 0.40 (CI, ±0.19) to 0.45 (CI, ±0.22) SDU. The homogeneity test statistic for ADL scores decreased slightly in both confounded and unconfounded studies by weighting the summary effect sizes by a factor t_i, but remained not statistically significant. In addition, heterogeneity was not statistically significant between these two groups of studies. Weighting the four blinded studies by factor t_i hardly changed the summary effect size (ie, 0.1 [CI, ±0.26]).

Functional and Neuromuscular Outcome Parameters
Only one study investigating the effects of intensity of rehabilitation on neuromuscular outcome was confounded because patients were treated at separate locations³⁴ (Fig 2 and Table 4). The studies in which functional outcome was assessed were not confounded by organizational setting. In addition, all studies were blindly recorded. The unbiased summary effect size ^u's for functional and neuromuscular scores were estimated at 0.10 (CI, ±0.21) and 0.37 (CI, ±0.24) SDU, respectively. No significant heterogeneity was found. To control for organizational setting and blinding procedures, a post hoc analysis for neuromuscular scores revealed comparable summary effect sizes at 0.35 (CI, ±0.30) and 0.36 (CI, ±0.31), respectively).

View larger version (18K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2. Ninety-five percent CIs of effect sizes for outcome of neuromuscular and functional parameters. Positive effect sizes indicate that intensive rehabilitation was more effective than control conditions; negative effect sizes indicate that the control regimen was more effective.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 4. Categorical Fixed Effects Model for Studies Evaluating the Effects of Intensity of Rehabilitation in Terms of Neuromuscular and Functional Outcome

Weighting each study by a time factor t_i resulted in a significant summary effect size ^u for variables defined on a functional level; that is, an increment from 0.10 (CI, ±0.25) to 0.36 (CI, ±0.22) SDU was found. On the neuromuscular level the summary effect size decreased from 0.37 (CI, ±0.23) to 0.32 (CI, ±0.25) SDU after weighting for t_i. When we weighted the blindly recorded studies only (n=3), a slightly higher summary effect size was found (0.36; CI, ±0.33).

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
In a number of critical reviews it has been suggested that an early start of intensive rehabilitation may be an important part of expert care in stroke patients.^{4 5 6 7 8 39} In the present research synthesis small⁴⁰ but statistically significant improvements in ADL as well as in neuromuscular and functional outcome variables were found as a result of higher intensities of rehabilitation. These results support the findings of Langhorne et al, who applied Fisher's inverse ² test and odds ratios. After probability values of the 9 studies included in the present study were combined with Fisher's inverse ² test,^{21 41} significant improvements in ADL as well as neuromuscular and functional outcome parameters as a result of higher intensities of rehabilitation were found.

In the present study Hedges's g method was applied, because ADL, muscle strength,^{32 34 35} synergism,^{37 38} dexterity,^{35 38} and walking velocity^{36 37} are assessed on an ordinal or interval scale. This method allows for sensitivity analysis by weighting effect sizes for covariates such as amount of rehabilitation. The clinical relevance of obtained or reported summary effect sizes remains an important problem.

The overall unbiased summary effect size of 0.28 SDU for ADL is smaller than the summary effect size of 0.57 SDU found by Ottenbacher and Jarnell.¹² Even the application of a random effects model in the present study resulted in almost comparable effect sizes (ie, 0.29; CI, ±0.13 SDU) (Table 5).

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   Table 5. Categorical Random Effects Model for Confounded and Unconfounded Studies Investigating the Effects of Intensity of Rehabilitation in Terms of ADL

As in the study of Langhorne et al,¹³ a difference was found in summary effect size between studies in which experimental and control groups were managed in the same setting (unconfounded studies) compared with the management of experimental and control groups in different settings (confounded studies). However, in the present study the effect size was smaller in the unconfounded studies (0.19; CI, ±0.17) than in the confounded studies (0.40; CI, ±0.19). The higher summary effect size for confounded studies compared with that for unconfounded studies may be the result of comparing the effects of stroke rehabilitation wards with those of general medical wards in 2 of 3 studies.^{33 34} Combining the findings of these 2 studies resulted in a summary effect size of 0.50 (CI, ±0.33) SDU. Smith et al⁴² and Kalra et al^{43 44} demonstrated improved ADL and reduced hospital stay in stroke rehabilitation wards compared with patients admitted to general medical wards, while the amount of therapy was almost similar in both experimental conditions. Factors such as early onset of therapy,^{42 43 44 45} better education of staff members,⁴⁵ better organization of stroke care,^{43 44} and family participation^{45 46} may explain differences in better outcome of stroke rehabilitation wards.^{6 7 8}

The low to moderate summary effect size found for the studies investigating the effects of intensity of rehabilitation may be caused by heterogeneity of the patient population, limited responsiveness of used assessment instruments, and insufficient modulation of intensity of therapy.⁴⁷ With respect to the heterogeneity of the patient population, it should be noted that the number of previous strokes, lesion size, and localization of stroke have an important impact on functional recovery.^{48 49 50} Only one study³⁸ treated stroke as a single diagnostic category.

Ottenbacher and Jarnell¹² were unable to find a statistically significant correlation coefficient (r=.11) between length or extent of therapy and effect size. In the present study, weighting the additional amount of rehabilitation in the experimental group compared with the control group in the individual studies increased the summary effect sizes for ADL in the unconfounded studies from 0.19 (±0.17) to 0.25 (±0.18) SDU. This finding provides further evidence for the presence of an intensity-effect relationship and suggests that this relationship is more likely to occur when the difference in intensity of rehabilitation between experimental conditions is sufficiently large.

Remarkable in our research synthesis was the observation that in studies conducted in North America^{31 32 37 38} the amount of rehabilitation in both experimental and control groups was twice that of European studies.^{25 33 34 35 36} It should be noted, however, that the actual amount of rehabilitation has been adequately controlled in only one study.³⁷ Treatment days,³⁴ frequency of treatment,³⁴ or amount of treatment without correction for duration of admission²⁵ are only rough indicators for intensity of therapy (see Reference 29²⁹ for discussion).

Another important result is that the summary effect size for outcome variables defined on the neuromuscular level is almost three times as high (ie, 0.37 SDU) as the summary effect size for functional outcome parameters (ie, 0.10 SDU). This finding may reflect the higher responsiveness of assessment instruments for neuromuscular functioning and supports the assumption that improvements on an impairment level are not unequivocally related to improvements in disability.^{6 7 37} However, weighting the additional amount of rehabilitation in the experimental group compared with the control group in individual studies resulted in a significant summary effect size for functional outcome variables, providing more evidence for the presence of an intensity-effect relationship. However, lower (weighted) summary effect sizes were obtained when the four blinded studies (with the highest methodological quality^{35 36 37 38} ) were analyzed separately (see also Reference 12¹² ). The latter finding suggests that observation bias may also explain part of the reported differences in summary effect sizes.

In summary, the present research synthesis demonstrates small but statistically significant improvements in terms of ADL and functional outcome parameters. However, generalization of the results of the present research synthesis is difficult because of the low methodological quality of the included studies. Further research on the effects of intensity of physical and occupational therapy is necessary. These studies should experimentally control for (1) sufficient contrast in amount of therapy spent, (2) organizational setting of rehabilitation management, and (3) specification of patient characteristics such as type and localization of stroke, number of previous strokes, and initial ADL score. In addition, these studies should adhere to the methodological principles, especially blind recording, as described in the present research synthesis.

	Acknowledgments

 
This study is part of a research project supported by a grant from The Netherlands Heart Foundation (project reference No. 93.134). The authors thank Walter Cambach and Erwin van Wegen for their contribution to the data analysis.

	Selected Abbreviations and Acronyms

 

ADL = activities of daily living CI = confidence interval OT = occupational therapy PT = physical therapy SDU = standard deviation units

View larger version (61K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 3. Appendix

	Footnotes

 
Reprint requests to Gert Kwakkel, MSc, Department of Physical Therapy, University Hospital Vrije Universiteit, PO Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Received March 24, 1997; revision received May 13, 1997; accepted May 13, 1997.

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				J. Bernhardt, N. Chitravas, I. L. Meslo, A. G. Thrift, and B. Indredavik Not All Stroke Units Are the Same: A Comparison of Physical Activity Patterns in Melbourne, Australia, and Trondheim, Norway Stroke, July 1, 2008; 39(7): 2059 - 2065. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Coote, B. Murphy, W. Harwin, and E. Stokes The effect of the GENTLE/s robot-mediated therapy system on arm function after stroke Clinical Rehabilitation, May 1, 2008; 22(5): 395 - 405. [Abstract] [PDF]

				A. Burns, J. Burridge, and R. Pickering Does the use of a constraint mitten to encourage use of the hemiplegic upper limb improve arm function in adults with subacute stroke? Clinical Rehabilitation, October 1, 2007; 21(10): 895 - 904. [Abstract] [PDF]

				R. Allison and R. Dennett Pilot randomized controlled trial to assess the impact of additional supported standing practice on functional ability post stroke Clinical Rehabilitation, July 1, 2007; 21(7): 614 - 619. [Abstract] [PDF]

				L. Leocani, E. Comi, P. Annovazzi, M. Rovaris, P. Rossi, M. Cursi, M. Comola, V. Martinelli, and G. Comi Impaired Short-term Motor Learning in Multiple Sclerosis: Evidence From Virtual Reality Neurorehabil Neural Repair, May 1, 2007; 21(3): 273 - 278. [Abstract] [PDF]

				T. Ryan, P. Enderby, and A. S Rigby A randomized controlled trial to evaluate intensity of community-based rehabilitation provision following stroke or hip fracture in old age Clinical Rehabilitation, February 1, 2006; 20(2): 123 - 131. [Abstract] [PDF]

				M. Rijntjes, V. Hobbeling, F. Hamzei, S. Dohse, G. Ketels, J. Liepert, and C. Weiller Individual Factors in Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy after Stroke Neurorehabil Neural Repair, September 1, 2005; 19(3): 238 - 249. [Abstract] [PDF]

				P M van Vliet, N B Lincoln, and A Foxall Comparison of Bobath based and movement science based treatment for stroke: a randomised controlled trial J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, April 1, 2005; 76(4): 503 - 508. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				V. M. Pomeroy, C. A. Clark, J. S. G. Miller, J.-C. Baron, H. S. Markus, and R. C. Tallis The Potential for Utilizing the "Mirror Neurone System" to Enhance Recovery of the Severely Affected Upper Limb Early after Stroke: A Review and Hypothesis Neurorehabil Neural Repair, March 1, 2005; 19(1): 4 - 13. [Abstract] [PDF]

				T E Howe, I Taylor, P Finn, and H Jones Lateral weight transference exercises following acute stroke: a preliminary study of clinical effectiveness Clinical Rehabilitation, January 1, 2005; 19(1): 45 - 53. [Abstract] [PDF]

				G. Kwakkel, R. van Peppen, R. C. Wagenaar, S. Wood Dauphinee, C. Richards, A. Ashburn, K. Miller, N. Lincoln, C. Partridge, I. Wellwood, et al. Effects of Augmented Exercise Therapy Time After Stroke: A Meta-Analysis Stroke, November 1, 2004; 35(11): 2529 - 2539. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				The Glasgow Augmented Physiotherapy Study (GAPS) g Can augmented physiotherapy input enhance recovery of mobility after stroke? A randomized controlled trial Clinical Rehabilitation, May 1, 2004; 18(5): 529 - 537. [Abstract] [PDF]

				J. Green, J. Young, A. Forster, F. Collen, and D. Wade Combined analysis of two randomized trials of community physiotherapy for patients more than one year post stroke Clinical Rehabilitation, March 1, 2004; 18(3): 249 - 252. [Abstract] [PDF]

				J. H Crosbie, S. M McDonough, D. H Gilmore, and M I. Wiggam The adjunctive role of mental practice in the rehabilitation of the upper limb after hemiplegic stroke: a pilot studya Clinical Rehabilitation, January 1, 2004; 18(1): 60 - 68. [Abstract] [PDF]

				R. J Siegert, S. Lord, and K. Porter Constraint-induced movement therapy: time for a little restraint? Clinical Rehabilitation, January 1, 2004; 18(1): 110 - 114. [Abstract] [PDF]

				S. B. DeBow, M. L.A. Davies, H. L. Clarke, and F. Colbourne Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy and Rehabilitation Exercises Lessen Motor Deficits and Volume of Brain Injury After Striatal Hemorrhagic Stroke in Rats Stroke, April 1, 2003; 34(4): 1021 - 1026. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. M.J. Steultjens, J. Dekker, L. M. Bouter, J. C.M. van de Nes, E. H.C. Cup, C. H.M. van den Ende, F. Landi, and R. Bernabei Occupational Therapy for Stroke Patients: A Systematic Review * Occupational Therapy for Stroke Patients: When, Where, and How? Stroke, March 1, 2003; 34(3): 676 - 687. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. S Merians, D. Jack, R. Boian, M. Tremaine, G. C Burdea, S. V Adamovich, M. Recce, and H. Poizner Virtual Reality-Augmented Rehabilitation for Patients Following Stroke Physical Therapy, September 1, 2002; 82(9): 898 - 915. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. Kwakkel and R. C Wagenaar Effect of Duration of Upper- and Lower-Extremity Rehabilitation Sessions and Walking Speed on Recovery of Interlimb Coordination in Hemiplegic Gait Physical Therapy, May 1, 2002; 82(5): 432 - 448. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G Kwakkel, B J Kollen, and R C Wagenaar Long term effects of intensity of upper and lower limb training after stroke: a randomised trial J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, April 1, 2002; 72(4): 473 - 479. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J R de Kroon, J H van der Lee, M J IJzerman, and G J Lankhorst Therapeutic electrical stimulation to improve motor control and functional abilities of the upper extremity after stroke: a systematic review Clinical Rehabilitation, April 1, 2002; 16(4): 350 - 360. [Abstract] [PDF]