(Stroke. 2000;31:2616.)
© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.
Original Contributions |
Incidence and Risk Factors for Subtypes of Cerebral Infarction in a General Population
The Hisayama Study
From the Department of Medicine and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
Correspondence to Yumihiro Tanizaki, MD, Department of Medicine and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Maidashi 3-1-1, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan. E-mail yumi{at}intmed2.med.kyushu-u.ac.jp
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Background and Purpose—We estimated the incidence of first-ever cerebral infarction in regard to its subtypes and analyzed their risk factors separately in a community-based prospective cohort study in Japan.
Methods—Stroke-free subjects (n=1621) aged 
40 years were
followed up for 32 years from 1961. During this period, 298 cerebral
infarctions occurred and were divided into 167 lacunar, 62
atherothrombotic, 56 cardioembolic, and 13 undetermined subtypes of
infarction on the basis of clinical information including brain imaging
and autopsy findings.
Results—The age-adjusted incidence of lacunar infarction (3.8 per 1000 person-years for men and 2.0 for women) was higher than that of atherothrombotic infarction (1.2, 0.7) and cardioembolic infarction (1.3, 0.5) in both sexes. Time-dependent Cox’s proportional hazard analysis revealed systolic blood pressure as well as age to be independent risk factors for all subtypes of cerebral infarction except for cardioembolic infarction in men. Additionally, ST depression on ECG, glucose intolerance, and smoking in men and left ventricular hypertrophy on ECG and body mass index in women remained significant risk factors for lacunar infarction. ST depression was also significantly related to events of atherothrombotic infarction in women. The risk of atrial fibrillation for cardioembolic infarction was outstandingly high in both sexes, and left ventricular hypertrophy and lower total cholesterol were additional risk factors for cardioembolic infarction in women.
Conclusions—In this Japanese population, lacunar infarction was the most common subtype of cerebral infarction and had a greater variety of risk factors, including not only hypertension but also ECG abnormalities, diabetes, obesity, and smoking, than did atherothrombotic infarction or cardioembolic infarction.
Key Words: cerebral embolism • lacunar infarction • prospective studies • risk factors • thrombosis
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Cerebral infarction is the most common type of stroke in Japan as well as in other developed countries.1 Cerebral infarction is clinically categorized into several subtypes on the basis of the size and location of the affected cerebral arteries and on their pathogenesis: lacunar, atherothrombotic, and cardioembolic infarction.2 Because of differences in pathogenesis, prognosis, and treatment among cerebral infarction subtypes, risk factor assessment for each cerebral infarction subtype should be performed separately. However, since the correct classification of cerebral infarction subtypes requires detailed clinical information, including that from morphological examination, most of the previous reports concerning frequency and risk factors of cerebral infarction subtypes have been based on hospital-based registration studies,3 4 5 6 7 and those utilizing prospective cohort studies have been very few.8
Since 1961, we have been performing a long-term prospective cohort study of cardiovascular disease in the community of Hisayama on Kyushu Island, in Japan. In this study, study-team physicians performed physical and neurological examinations on a majority of the subjects who developed stroke and collected clinical information, including information on the course of the disease. Furthermore, morphological examinations by autopsy and/or brain imaging were performed on 93% of the cerebral infarction subjects. This characteristic study design provided us an opportunity to classify cerebral infarction cases into subtypes with a high degree of accuracy. In the present article we estimated incidence of cerebral infarction by subtypes and analyzed their risk factors, taking into account the dynamic transition of risk factors, by means of follow-up examinations and by using the time-dependent Cox’s proportional hazards model.
|
Subjects and Methods |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Study Protocol
In 1961 we performed a screening examination among residents of the town of Hisayama and established a cohort consisting of 1621 stroke-free subjects aged
40 years (88% of the total population in
that age group).9 This population was followed up for 32
years between November 1, 1961, and October 30, 1993, by repeated
health examinations every 2 years until 1974 and then every 5 years
after that. For subjects who did not undergo regular examination or who
moved out of town, health status was checked by mail or telephone. In
addition, we collected information regarding new
cardiovascular events, including stroke, through a
daily monitoring system established by the study-team physicians, local
practitioners, and staff of the division of Health and
Welfare of the town. When new neurological symptoms were suspected,
study-team physicians evaluated the subject, and an effort was made to
obtain further diagnostic information. In deceased cases,
the cause of death and types of stroke were determined clinically and
verified pathologically. During the follow-up period, 1063 subjects
died, and of these, 861 (81%) underwent autopsy. Autopsies were
performed at the Department of Pathology of Kyushu University. Only 2
subjects were lost to follow-up.
Definition of Subtype of Cerebral Infarction
The diagnosis of stroke was made according to the following
classification system on the basis of the clinical information and
autopsy findings. Stroke was defined as a sudden onset of nonconvulsive
and focal neurological deficit persisting for >24 hours and was
classified as either cerebral infarction, cerebral hemorrhage,
subarachnoid hemorrhage, or undetermined type of
stroke.10 Cases of cerebrovascular disease due to rare
causes such as collagen disease, hematologic disorders, trauma,
cerebral arterial spasm after subarachnoid
hemorrhage, chronic subdural hematoma, and moyamoya disease
were not included in stroke cases. Cerebral infarction was further
divided into 4 clinical categories—lacunar infarction,
atherothrombotic infarction, cardioembolic infarction, and undetermined
subtype of cerebral infarction—on the basis of the Classification of
Cerebrovascular Disease III proposed by the National Institute of
Neurological Disorders and Stroke,2 as well as on the
basis of the diagnostic criteria of the Trial of Org 10172
in Acute Stroke Treatment (TOAST) study11 and Cerebral
Embolism Task Force12 for cerebral infarction subtypes.
The diagnoses of cerebral infarction and its subtypes were made by
reference to detailed clinical features and ancillary laboratory
examinations, such as an analysis of cerebrospinal fluid,
cerebral angiography, recent brain imaging including CT and MRI,
echocardiography, carotid duplex imaging, and
autopsy. We considered the morphological findings significant and used
clinical features as reference information.
During the follow-up period, a total of 298 cases developed first-ever cerebral infarction, and of these, 277 (93%) underwent morphological examinations. Autopsies were performed on 222 cerebral infarction cases (74%). Two neurologists (Y.T. and Y.K.) made the diagnoses of cerebral infarction subtypes separately, using collected clinical and pathological information. Their diagnoses agreed in 279 cerebral infarction cases (94%), and in the remaining 19 cases, the diagnoses were determined by a detailed panel discussion. When sufficient clinical and morphological information was obtained, a diagnosis of cerebral infarction subtype was defined as "definite." When the amount of either type of information was insufficient, the diagnostic level was defined as "probable."
Lacunar Infarction
These cerebral infarction cases lack evidence of cerebral
cortical impairment, cerebellar dysfunction, and disturbance of
consciousness. Classification into this subtype also requires the
presence of a relevant brain stem or subcortical hemispheric lesion
with a diameter of <1.5 cm as demonstrated on CT, MRI, or autopsy. The
absence of a potential cardiac source for embolism and of a significant
stenosis (>50%) in an ipsilateral large artery further
support the clinical diagnosis.
Atherothrombotic Infarction
Atherothrombotic infarction patients have clinical and
morphological findings of either significant stenosis (>50%)
or occlusion of a major cerebral artery or a cortical branch artery.
Clinical findings include those of cerebral cortical impairment (eg,
aphasia, agnosia) or cerebellar dysfunction. History of transient
ischemic attacks in the same vascular territory, a carotid
bruit, and the absence of cardiac sources for embolism support the
clinical diagnosis. Infarcts >1.5 cm in diameter on brain imaging or
autopsy are considered to be of potential large-artery atherosclerotic
origin. Cases of artery-to-artery embolism, diagnosed by abrupt onset
of the maximal neurological deficit without cardiac sources for
embolism and with either significant stenosis or occlusion in
an ipsilateral large artery, are included in this category.
Cardioembolic Infarction
The diagnosis of this category is determined on the basis of
modified clinical features suggestive of cardioembolic infarction
reported by the Cerebral Embolism Task Force.12 They
consist of 3 primary and 4 secondary features. The primary features are
as follows: (1) abrupt onset of the maximal neurological deficit; (2)
presence of cardiac sources for embolism, as described in the TOAST
classification of risk sources of
cardioembolism11 ; and (3) multiple brain
infarcts involving multiple arterial territories. The
secondary features are as follows: (1) presence of hemorrhagic infarct;
(2) cortical infarct area corresponding exactly to a major cerebral
arterial territory but not to a branch territory; (3)
absence of either significant stenosis or occlusion in the
ipsilateral artery; and (4) evidence of embolism to other organs. This
subtype of cerebral infarction is diagnosed by the presence of 2
primary features or by the presence of 1 primary feature and 2
secondary features.
Undetermined Subtype
This category includes all cerebral infarction cases for which
the subtype cannot be determined because of insufficient clinical or
morphological information.
On the basis of the above criteria, we subdivided the 298 cases of cerebral infarction into 167 cases of lacunar infarction (81 men and 86 women), 62 of atherothrombotic infarction (29 men and 33 women), 56 of cardioembolic infarction (31 men and 25 women), and 13 of undetermined subtype (3 men and 10 women). Among these diagnoses, 272 were defined as definite and 26 as probable. In this study we present the data regarding definite and probable cerebral infarction cases together, since these combined data were almost identical to that for definite cases only.
Risk Factors
We assessed risk factors for cerebral infarction using data from
the baseline and 5 major follow-up examinations performed in 1967,
1974, 1978, 1983, and 1988. More than 80% of the total number of
surviving subjects participated in each follow-up examination.
Blood pressures were measured 3 times at each examination, and the average values were used for the analysis. Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) (Minnesota code 3-1), ST depression (4-1,2,3 except for 3-1), and atrial fibrillation (AF) (8-3) on ECG were separately evaluated. Glucose intolerance was determined by an oral glucose tolerance test in subjects with glycosuria in 1961 and 1967, by fasting and postprandial glucose concentrations in 1974, 1978, and 1983, and by a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test in 1988, in addition to medical history of diabetes.13 14 Body weight and height were measured in light clothing without shoes, and body mass index (BMI) was calculated. Serum cholesterol level was determined by the Zak-Henly method with a modification by Yoshikawa in 1961 and 1967, by the Zurkowski method in 1974, and by the enzymatic method in 1978, 1983, and 1988.15 16 Information on antihypertensive treatment, smoking habits, and alcohol intake was obtained with the use of a standard questionnaire, and these factors were classified as being either habitually used or not used.
Statistical Analysis
The incidence of cerebral infarction and its subtypes was
calculated by the person-year method. Relative risk (RR) was estimated
by the time-dependent Cox’s proportional hazards model, in which all
risk factors except for age and sex were allowed to change on the basis
of data from the 5 follow-up examinations.17 If subjects
had missing data in the time-dependent covariate model, they were
excluded from these analyses. Only 30 cerebral infarction cases
(10%) were so excluded. In multivariate
analysis using the significant and marginally significant
(P<0.1) risk factors from the aged-adjusted
analysis, the stepwise method was applied, with
P<0.1 being required for entry into the model and for
remaining there. P<0.05 was considered to indicate
statistical significance.
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
The characteristics of study subjects at baseline examination are described by sex in Table 1
. The mean age
was 56 years for men and 57 years for women. The mean systolic
and diastolic blood pressures as well as the frequency of
antihypertensive medication were the almost same for both sexes. The
frequency of LVH on ECG was twice as high in men than in women, while
the opposite sex-related difference was observed for ST depression. The
frequency of AF was low in both sexes (0.7%). Glucose intolerance was
more prevalent in men than in women, while the mean total
cholesterol and BMI were higher in women. Men consumed
alcohol and cigarettes more than did women.
|
As shown in Table 2, the age-adjusted
incidence of lacunar infarction was higher than that of
atherothrombotic infarction and cardioembolic infarction in both sexes,
and the incidence of cerebral infarction as well as that of 3 major
subtypes was approximately twice as high in men as in
women.
|
The age-adjusted RRs and 95% CIs of each risk factor for cerebral
infarction and its subtypes are given by sex in Tables 3 and 4.
The RRs for undetermined subtypes were not estimated because of the
small number. Systolic and diastolic blood
pressures, LVH, ST depression, AF, and glucose intolerance were all
significant risk factors for cerebral infarction in both sexes. When
analyzed by cerebral infarction subtypes, systolic and
diastolic blood pressures appeared to be significant risk
factors for all cerebral infarction subtypes in both sexes except for
cardioembolic infarction in men (P<0.05). With regard to
other risk factors, LVH and glucose intolerance were additional risk
factors for lacunar infarction in both sexes (P<0.05).
Smoking and ST depression were also significantly associated with the
occurrence of lacunar infarction in men (P<0.05), while BMI
was a significant risk factor for lacunar infarction in women
(P<0.05). Only ST depression was an additional risk factor
for atherothrombotic infarction for women (P<0.01). All ECG
abnormalities except for ST depression in women were significant risk
factors for cardioembolic infarction in both sexes
(P<0.05), while total cholesterol showed an
inverse correlation to the risk of cardioembolic infarction in women
(P<0.05).
|
|
Multivariate analysis revealed age,
systolic blood pressure, LVH, and AF as independent risk
factors for cerebral infarction in both sexes, and ST depression and
glucose intolerance were additional risk factors in men (Tables 5 and 6).
With regard to subtypes of cerebral infarction, systolic blood
pressure (P<0.01) as well as age was an independent risk
factor of the same magnitude for all subtypes of cerebral infarction
except for cardioembolic infarction in men; RRs for a 10-mm Hg
increaseranged between 1.2 and 1.3. Additionally, ST depression
(P<0.01), glucose intolerance (P<0.01), and
smoking habits (P<0.01) remained significant risk factors
for lacunar infarction in men, while LVH (P<0.05) and BMI
(P<0.05) were significant risk factors for lacunar
infarction in women. ST depression was also significantly related to
events of atherothrombotic infarction in women (P<0.05). AF
was an exceptionally significant risk factor for cardioembolic
infarction in both sexes (RR=17.8 for men and RR=5.9 for women;
P<0.01), and LVH (P<0.05) and lower total
cholesterol (P<0.05) were additional risk
factors for cardioembolic infarction in women.
|
|
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Subtype of Cerebral Infarction
To our knowledge, this is the first community-based prospective cohort study that estimates incidence of cerebral infarction in terms of subtypes and analyzes the risk factors. Among our subjects, lacunar infarction was the most common subtype of cerebral infarction and accounted for 56% of the total number of cerebral infarction cases, followed by atherothrombotic infarction and cardioembolic infarction. A previous autopsy study of Hisayama residents similarly found that 76% of cerebral infarction cases featured infarcts <1 cm in diameter (lacunes).18 In contrast, stroke registries in Western countries3 4 5 6 have reported lower frequencies of lacunar infarction than of atherothrombotic infarction and cardioembolic infarction. Japanese are at higher risk for arteriosclerosis of the cerebral parenchymatous small arteries than they are for atherosclerosis of the cervical or intracranial large arteries, while the latter condition is dominant in white persons.19
Risk Factors for Subtypes of Cerebral Infarction
Hypertension
Hypertension is the most powerful risk factor for all types of
stroke, including cerebral infarction, irrespective of sex, race, or
nationality. The present study showed that elevated blood pressure
as well as age was a risk factor for all subtypes of cerebral
infarction in both sexes except for cardioembolic infarction in men.
Time-dependent multivariate RRs of systolic
blood pressure were constant for all subtypes, ranging between 1.2 and
1.3 for a 10-mm Hg increase, suggesting that the risk of blood
pressure was the same for all cerebral infarction subtypes. Since most
prospective epidemiological studies have assessed the risk of
hypertension using only a single blood pressure measurement at
baseline, the increase in the frequency of hypertension with advancing
age during a follow-up period has not been considered. In our study,
however, this bias was minimized by the incorporation of follow-up
blood pressure measurements into the analysis. Thus, the risk
assessment in this study more closely reflects the actual relationship
between blood pressure and each subtype of cerebral infarction.
ECG Abnormalities
Our data showed that LVH and ST depression on ECG were independent
risk factors for each cerebral infarction subtype, though not in all
sex-subtype categories. The prevalence of these ECG abnormalities in
our subjects increased with elevating age and blood pressure (data not
shown), suggesting that they reflect a longer duration of
hypertension.
It is evident that AF is the most frequent source of cardiac embolism and is associated with a 4- to 5-fold increase in the risk of stroke in white populations.12 20 In our study AF presented a relatively low risk for total cerebral infarction (RR=3.7 for men and RR=2.8 for women). This discrepancy was probably due to the relatively low frequency of cardioembolic infarction, for which the risk of AF was outstandingly high (RR=17.8 for men and RR=5.9 for women), among our cerebral infarction cases.
Smoking
Smoking is widely accepted as one of the risk factors for cerebral
infarction in Western populations,21 22 but this
relationship has not been observed in most Japanese epidemiological
studies 23,24 and was not observed here. However,
in our further investigation of cerebral infarction by subtypes,
smoking surfaced as a risk factor for lacunar infarction in men, a
larger percentage of whom were current smokers than were the women.
This finding is consistent with those of previous case-control
studies on lacunar syndrome.25 26 Although several
explanations of the relation of smoking to cerebral infarction are
plausible, smoking is thought to affect lacunar infarction mainly
through reversible factors, such as increased platelet aggregation
and arterial vasoconstriction induced by augmented
sympathetic activity, rather than through atherogenic
factors.27 This hypothesis is supported by reports that
stroke risk in smokers decreases to the level of that in nonsmokers
relatively quickly (several years) after cessation of
smoking.21 22
Glucose Intolerance
In our male subjects, glucose intolerance was an especially high
risk for lacunar infarction, and this relationship remained significant
even after controlling for other risk factors (RR=2.0). These results
are consistent with previously reported case-control studies of
lacunar syndrome (odds ratio=2.0 to 2.3)25 26 and with a
recent 4.5-year follow-up study of elderly subjects with isolated
systolic hypertension (RR=3.0).8 Diabetes is
associated with elevated coagulation factors and
hyperinsulinemia, which may play a crucial role in
the development of lacunar infarction.28 29
Glucose intolerance is also thought to accelerate the atherosclerotic process of large cerebral arteries, resulting in atherothrombotic infarction. However, we did not find a significant relationship between glucose intolerance and atherothrombotic infarction in our subjects. This is in accord with the findings of the aforementioned short-term follow-up study of isolated systolic hypertension in the elderly.8 Atherosclerotic disease, including atherothrombotic infarction, is generally a slow pathoanatomic process that may take a long time to reach a clinical end stage in healthy populations. Thus, long-term observation may be necessary for evaluation of the relationship between glucose intolerance and atherothrombotic infarction. On the other hand, the time-dependent Cox’s proportional hazards model used in this study is considered to reflect mainly the short-term effect of risk factors by taking into account those measured in the nearest examinations before the events of cerebral infarction.30 This characteristic of the statistical method used here may be one of the reasons why glucose intolerance was not a risk factor for atherothrombotic infarction in our subjects.
Body Mass Index
Recently, 2 large cohort studies,31 32 1 on
Japanese-American men and 1 on American nurses, have reported a direct
relationship between elevated BMI and stroke. In our subjects, BMI was
not an apparent risk factor for cerebral infarction but was
independently correlated with the occurrence of lacunar infarction in
women. Obesity is closely related to other
cardiovascular risk factors, such as hypertension,
dyslipidemia, and glucose intolerance, and is thought to
affect cardiovascular disease through these atherogenic
factors. Among Hisayama residents, the associations between BMI and
other risk factors, especially diabetes, were stronger in women than
men. Thus, elevated BMI might affect lacunar infarction through glucose
intolerance and other correlated risk factors as well, such as elevated
sympathetic activity.33
Serum Cholesterol
Some epidemiological studies from Western countries have shown a
significant relationship between
hypercholesterolemia and the risk of
stroke.34 35 However, our female subjects showed an
inverse relationship between total cholesterol level and
the risk of cardioembolic infarction. Although the reason for this is
unknown, the possibility exists that the cholesterol level
in our subjects was generally low, and a lowered
cholesterol level might increase the risk of
AF,36 which is known to be a prominent risk factor for
cardioembolic infarction.
Limitations of the Study
We used information derived from the initial and 5 follow-up
examinations for estimating RRs for cerebral infarction subtypes. There
is a possibility that the results of this study were biased because
some subjects did not return for the follow-up examinations. However,
>80% of the total number of surviving stroke-free subjects
participated in each examination. In addition, when we analyzed
the relationship between baseline risk factors and cerebral infarction
events in the total cohort and then in the subgroup consisting of the
total cohort minus the subjects who did not return, the results were
similar (data not shown). These facts make it unlikely that this bias
invalidates the findings of the present study.
Another potential problem in our study was that the methods for measuring serum cholesterol and the criteria for glucose intolerance changed during the follow-up period. This limitation of the risk factor measurement was likely to have contributed to a bias toward finding no effect. Therefore, our estimates of the effect of risk factors are probably conservative. Nonetheless, we believe that our findings contribute to a better understanding of risk factors for each cerebral infarction subtype and its prevention.
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
The authors are grateful to Emeritus Professor Shibanosuke Katsuki; Yasuo Hirota, MD; Moriyuki Takeshita, MD; Kazuo Ueda, MD; Yutaka Hasuo, MD; Emeritus Professors Kenzo Tanaka and Munetomo Enjoji; Katsuo Sueishi, MD; Masazumi Tsuneyoshi, MD; Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan; and Teruo Omae, Emeritus President of the National Cardiovascular Disease Center, Osaka, Japan, for their devotion to the Hisayama study.
Received March 13, 2000; revision received July 25, 2000; accepted August 4, 2000.
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
1. Sudlow CLM, Warlow CP. Comparable studies of the incidence of stroke and its pathological types: results from an international collaboration. Stroke.. 1997;28:491–499.
2.
Special report from the National Institute of
Neurological Disorders and Stroke: classification of cerebrovascular
diseases III. Stroke.. 1990;21:637–676.
3.
Mohr JP, Caplan LR, Melski JW, Goldstein RJ, Duncan
GW, Kistler JP, Pessin MS, Bleich HL. The Harvard Cooperative Stroke
Registry: a prospective registry. Neurology. 1978;28:754–762.
4.
Foulkes MA, Wolf PA, Price TR, Mohr JP, Hier DB. The
Stroke Data Bank: design, methods, and baseline characteristics.
Stroke. 1988;19:547–554.
5.
Bogousslavsky J, Melle GV, Regli F. The Lausanne
Stroke Registry: analysis of 1,000 consecutive patients with
first stroke. Stroke. 1988;19:1083–1092.
6.
Petty GW, Brown RD Jr, Whisnant JP, Sicks JD,
O’Fallon WM, Wiebers DO. Ischemic stroke subtypes: a
population-based study of incidence and risk factors.
Stroke. 1999;30:2513–2516.
7.
Woo D, Gebel J, Miller R, Kothari R, Brott T, Khoury
J, Salisbury S, Shukla R, Pancioli A, Jauch E, Boderick J.
Incidence rates of first-ever ischemic stroke subtypes among
blacks: a population-based study. Stroke. 1999;30:2517–2522.
8.
Davis BR, Vogt T, Frost PH, Burlando A, Cohen J,
Wilson A, Brass LM, Frishman W, Price T, Stamler J, for the
Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program Cooperative
Research Group. Risk factors for stroke and type of stroke in persons
with isolated systolic hypertension. Stroke. 1998;29:1333–1340.
9. Katsuki S. Epidemiological and clinicopathological study on cerebrovascular disease in Japan. Prog Brain Res. 1966;21:64–89.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
10. World Health Organization. Cerebrovascular Diseases: Prevention, Treatment, and Rehabilitation. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1971. Technical Report Series No. 469.
11.
Adams HP Jr, Bendixen BH, Kappelle LJ, Biller J, Love
BB, Gordon DL, Marsh EE III. Classification of subtype of acute
ischemic stroke: definitions for use in a multicenter clinical
trial: TOAST: Trial of Org 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment.
Stroke. 1993;24:35–41.
12.
Cerebral Embolism Task Force. Cardiogenic brain
embolism. Arch Neurol. 1986;43:71–84.
13. Ohmura T, Ueda K, Hasuo Y, Kiyohara Y, Wada J, Kawano H, Shinkawa A, Iwamoto H, Nakayama K, Nakamura Y, Fijishima M. Long-term prognosis of diabetes in the general population of Hisayama, I: comparison of survival in subjects with and without glucose intolerance observed in two cohorts 13 years apart [in Japanese with English abstract]. J Jpn Diabetes Soc. 1990;33:727–735.
14. Ohmura T, Ueda K, Kiyohara Y, Kato I, Iwamoto H, Nakayama K, Nomiyama S, Ohmori S, Yoshitake T, Shinkawa A, Hasuo Y, Fujishima M. The association of the insulin resistance syndrome with impaired glucose tolerance and NIDDM in the Japanese general population: the Hisayama Study. Diabetologia. 1994;37:897–904.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
15. Yoshikawa H, Yoneyama Y, Kitamura M, Oyama H, Arimatu Y, Takahashi Z, Tomono T, Saito M, Yasugi T, Ishii T, Kasuga S, Hagino K, Kokufu T, Kobayashi R, Mori H, Sekimoto H, Shinohara T, Katayama T, Ito Y. Study on quantitative determination of serum total cholesterol by method of ferric chloride [in Japanese]. Igaku-no-Ayumi. 1960;33:375–381.
16. Fujii I, Ueda K, Yanai T, Hasuo Y, Kiyohara Y, Wada J, Kawano H, Shikata K, Takeshita S, Hirota Y, Omae T, Fujishima M. Changes in various blood chemical constituents in relation to menopause: the Hisayama Study [in Japanese with English abstract]. Jpn J Geriatr. 1986;23:50–58.
17. Cox DR, Oakes D. Analysis of Survival Data. New York, NY: Chapman Hall; 1984.
18.
Masuda J, Tanaka K, Omae T, Ueda K, Sadoshima S.
Cerebrovascular diseases and their underlying vascular lesions in
Hisayama, Japan: a pathological study of autopsy cases.
Stroke. 1983;14:934–940.
19.
Caplan LR, Gorelick PB, Hier DB. Race, sex and
occlusive cerebrovascular disease: a review. Stroke. 1986;17:648–655.
20.
Wolf PA, Abbott RD, Kannel WB. Atrial fibrillation as
an independent risk factor for stroke: the Framingham Study.
Stroke. 1991;22:983–988.
21. Abbott RD, Yin Y, Reed DM, Yano K. Risk of stroke in male cigarette smokers. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:717–720.[Abstract]
22.
Wolf PA, D’Agostino RB, Kannel WB, Bonita R, Belanger
AJ. Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for stroke: the Framingham
Study. JAMA. 1988;259:1025–1029.
23.
Okada H, Horibe H, Ohno Y, Hayakawa N, Aoki N. A
prospective study of cerebrovascular disease in Japanese rural
communities, Akabane and Asahi, part 1: evaluation of risk factors in
the occurrence of cerebral hemorrhage and thrombosis.
Stroke. 1976;7:599–607.
24.
Takeya Y, Popper JS, Shimizu Y, Kato H, Rhoads GG,
Kagan A. Epidemiologic studies of coronary heart disease and
stroke in Japanese men living in Japan, Hawaii and California:
incidence of stroke in Japan and Hawaii. Stroke. 1984;15:15–23.
25. Gandolfo C, Caponnetto C, Del Sette M, Santoloci D, Loeb C. Risk factors in lacunar syndromes: a case-control study. Acta Neurol Scand. 1988;77:22–26.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
26.
You R, McNeil JJ, O’Malley HM, Davis SM, Donnan GA.
Risk factors for lacunar infarction syndromes. Neurology. 1995;45:1483–1487.
27.
Love BB, Biller J, Jones MP, Adams HP Jr, Bruno A.
Cigarette smoking: a risk factor for cerebral infarction in young
adults. Arch Neurol. 1990;47:693–698.
28. Matsuda T, Morishita E, Jokaji H, Asakura H, Saito M, Yoshida T, Takemoto K. Mechanism on disorders of coagulation and fibrinolysis in diabetes. Diabetes. 1996;45(suppl 3):S109–S110.
29.
Zunker P, Schick A, Buschmann HC, Georgiadis D, Nabavi
DG, Edelmann M, Ringelstein EB. Hyperinsulinism and
cerebral microangiopathy. Stroke. 1996;27:219–223.
30. Cupples LA, D’Agostino RB, Anderson K, Kannel WB. Comparison of baseline and repeated measure covariate techniques in the Framingham Heart Study. Stat Med. 1988;7:205–218.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
31. Abbott RD, Behrens GR, Sharp DS, Rodriguez BL, Burchfiel CM, Ross GW, Yano K, Curb JD. Body mass index and thromboembolic stroke in nonsmoking men in older middle age: the Honolulu Heart Program. Stroke. 1994;25:2370–2376.[Abstract]
32.
Rexrode KM, Hennekens CH, Willett WC, Colditz GA,
Stampfer MJ, Rich-Edwards JW, Speizer FE, Manson JE. A prospective
study of body mass index, weight change, and risk of stroke in women.
JAMA. 1997;277:1539–1545.
33. Mancia G, Di Rienzo M, Parati G, Grassi G. Sympathetic activity, blood pressure variability and end organ damage in hypertension. J Hum Hypertens. 1997;11(suppl 1):S3–S8.
34.
Neaton JD, Blackburn H, Jacobs D, Kuller L, Lee DJ,
Sherwin R, Shih J, Stamler J, Wentworth D, for the Multiple Risk Factor
Intervention Trial Research Group. Serum cholesterol level
and mortality findings for men screened in the Multiple Risk Factor
Intervention Trial. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:1490–1500.
35. Benfante R, Yano K, Hwang LJ, Curb JD, Kagan A, Ross W. Elevated serum cholesterol is a risk factor for both coronary heart disease and thromboembolic stroke in Hawaiian Japanese men: implications of shared risk. Stroke. 1994;25:814–820.[Abstract]
36.
Psaty BM, Manolio TA, Kuller LH, Kronmal RA, Cushman M,
Fried LP, White R, Furberg CD, Rautaharju PM. Incidence of and risk
factors for atrial fibrillation in older adults.
Circulation. 1997;96:2455–2461.
This article has been cited by other articles:
 |
|
 |
|
  T. Sawada, H. Yamada, B. Dahlof, H. Matsubara, and for the KYOTO HEART Study Group Effects of valsartan on morbidity and mortality in uncontrolled hypertensive patients with high cardiovascular risks: KYOTO HEART Study Eur. Heart J., October 2, 2009; 30(20): 2461 - 2469. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 X. Chen, W. Wen, K. J. Anstey, and P. S. Sachdev Prevalence, incidence, and risk factors of lacunar infarcts in a community sample Neurology, July 28, 2009; 73(4): 266 - 272. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 T. Imamura, Y. Doi, H. Arima, K. Yonemoto, J. Hata, M. Kubo, Y. Tanizaki, S. Ibayashi, M. Iida, and Y. Kiyohara LDL Cholesterol and the Development of Stroke Subtypes and Coronary Heart Disease in a General Japanese Population: The Hisayama Study Stroke, February 1, 2009; 40(2): 382 - 388. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. Kubo, J. Hata, Y. Doi, Y. Tanizaki, M. Iida, and Y. Kiyohara Secular Trends in the Incidence of and Risk Factors for Ischemic Stroke and Its Subtypes in Japanese Population Circulation, December 16, 2008; 118(25): 2672 - 2678. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. Ueshima, A. Sekikawa, K. Miura, T. C. Turin, N. Takashima, Y. Kita, M. Watanabe, A. Kadota, N. Okuda, T. Kadowaki, et al. Cardiovascular Disease and Risk Factors in Asia: A Selected Review Circulation, December 16, 2008; 118(25): 2702 - 2709. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Matsumoto, S. Ishikawa, and E. Kajii Association of Adiponectin With Cerebrovascular Disease: A Nested Case-Control Study Stroke, February 1, 2008; 39(2): 323 - 328. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Kokubo, H. Iso, J. Ishihara, K. Okada, M. Inoue, S. Tsugane, and for the JPHC Study Group Association of Dietary Intake of Soy, Beans, and Isoflavones With Risk of Cerebral and Myocardial Infarctions in Japanese Populations: The Japan Public Health Center Based (JPHC) Study Cohort I Circulation, November 27, 2007; 116(22): 2553 - 2562. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 E.J. Lee, H.J. Kim, J.M. Bae, J.C. Kim, H.J. Han, C.S. Park, N.H. Park, M.S. Kim, and J.A. Ryu Relevance of Common Carotid Intima-Media Thickness and Carotid Plaque as Risk Factors for Ischemic Stroke in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol., May 1, 2007; 28(5): 916 - 919. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. Hata, K. Matsuda, T. Ninomiya, K. Yonemoto, T. Matsushita, Y. Ohnishi, S. Saito, T. Kitazono, S. Ibayashi, M. Iida, et al. Functional SNP in an Sp1-binding site of AGTRL1 gene is associated with susceptibility to brain infarction Hum. Mol. Genet., March 15, 2007; 16(6): 630 - 639. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Ohira, E. Shahar, L. E. Chambless, W. D. Rosamond, T. H. Mosley Jr, and A. R. Folsom Risk Factors for Ischemic Stroke Subtypes: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study Stroke, October 1, 2006; 37(10): 2493 - 2498. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Kitamura, Y. Nakagawa, M. Sato, H. Iso, S. Sato, H. Imano, M. Kiyama, T. Okada, H. Okada, M. Iida, et al. Proportions of Stroke Subtypes Among Men and Women >=40 Years of Age in an Urban Japanese City in 1992, 1997, and 2002 Stroke, June 1, 2006; 37(6): 1374 - 1378. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Kubo, Y. Kiyohara, T. Ninomiya, Y. Tanizaki, K. Yonemoto, Y. Doi, J. Hata, Y. Oishi, K. Shikata, and M. Iida Decreasing incidence of lacunar vs other types of cerebral infarction in a Japanese population Neurology, May 23, 2006; 66(10): 1539 - 1544. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Wakugawa, Y. Kiyohara, Y. Tanizaki, M. Kubo, T. Ninomiya, J. Hata, Y. Doi, K. Okubo, Y. Oishi, K. Shikata, et al. C-Reactive Protein and Risk of First-Ever Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke in a General Japanese Population: The Hisayama Study Stroke, January 1, 2006; 37(1): 27 - 32. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
I. B. Goldstein, G. Bartzokis, D. Guthrie, and D. Shapiro Ambulatory blood pressure and the brain: A 5-year follow-up Neurology, June 14, 2005; 64(11): 1846 - 1852. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J Hata, Y Tanizaki, Y Kiyohara, I Kato, M Kubo, K Tanaka, K Okubo, H Nakamura, Y Oishi, S Ibayashi, et al. Ten year recurrence after first ever stroke in a Japanese community: the Hisayama study J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, March 1, 2005; 76(3): 368 - 372. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Iso, C. Date, A. Yamamoto, H. Toyoshima, Y. Watanabe, S. Kikuchi, A. Koizumi, Y. Wada, T. Kondo, Y. Inaba, et al. Smoking Cessation and Mortality from Cardiovascular Disease among Japanese Men and Women: The JACC Study Am. J. Epidemiol., January 15, 2005; 161(2): 170 - 179. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. Shimizu, Y. Kiyohara, I. Kato, T. Kitazono, Y. Tanizaki, M. Kubo, H. Ueno, S. Ibayashi, M. Fujishima, and M. Iida Relationship Between Plasma Glutathione Levels and Cardiovascular Disease in a Defined Population: The Hisayama Study Stroke, September 1, 2004; 35(9): 2072 - 2077. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. Ueshima, S. Reza Choudhury, A. Okayama, T. Hayakawa, Y. Kita, T. Kadowaki, T. Okamura, M. Minowa, O. Iimura, and NIPPON DATA80 Research Group Cigarette Smoking as a Risk Factor for Stroke Death in Japan: NIPPON DATA80 Stroke, August 1, 2004; 35(8): 1836 - 1841. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Sauvaget, J. Nagano, M. Hayashi, and M. Yamada Animal Protein, Animal Fat, and Cholesterol Intakes and Risk of Cerebral Infarction Mortality in the Adult Health Study Stroke, July 1, 2004; 35(7): 1531 - 1537. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Mannami, H. Iso, S. Baba, S. Sasaki, K. Okada, M. Konishi, S. Tsugane, and for the Japan Public Health Center-Based Prospecti Cigarette Smoking and Risk of Stroke and its Subtypes Among Middle-Aged Japanese Men and Women: The JPHC Study Cohort I Stroke, June 1, 2004; 35(6): 1248 - 1253. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Ohira, H. Iso, H. Imano, A. Kitamura, S. Sato, Y. Nakagawa, Y. Naito, T. Sankai, T. Tanigawa, K. Yamagishi, et al. Prospective Study of Major and Minor ST-T Abnormalities and Risk of Stroke Among Japanese Stroke, December 1, 2003; 34 (12): e250 - e253. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Kubo, Y. Kiyohara, I. Kato, Y. Tanizaki, H. Arima, K. Tanaka, H. Nakamura, K. Okubo, and M. Iida Trends in the Incidence, Mortality, and Survival Rate of Cardiovascular Disease in a Japanese Community: The Hisayama Study Stroke, October 1, 2003; 34(10): 2349 - 2354. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Kiyohara, M. Kubo, I. Kato, Y. Tanizaki, K. Tanaka, K. Okubo, H. Nakamura, and M. Iida Ten-Year Prognosis of Stroke and Risk Factors for Death in a Japanese Community: The Hisayama Study Stroke, October 1, 2003; 34(10): 2343 - 2347. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. Eguchi, K. Kario, and K. Shimada Greater Impact of Coexistence of Hypertension and Diabetes on Silent Cerebral Infarcts Stroke, October 1, 2003; 34(10): 2471 - 2474. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Sauvaget, J. Nagano, N. Allen, and K. Kodama Vegetable and Fruit Intake and Stroke Mortality in the Hiroshima/Nagasaki Life Span Study Stroke, October 1, 2003; 34(10): 2355 - 2360. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. Sauvaget, J. Nagano, N. Allen, E. J Grant, and V. Beral Intake of animal products and stroke mortality in the Hiroshima/Nagasaki Life Span Study Int. J. Epidemiol., August 1, 2003; 32(4): 536 - 543. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
U.G.R. Schulz and P.M. Rothwell Differences in Vascular Risk Factors Between Etiological Subtypes of Ischemic Stroke: Importance of Population-Based Studies Stroke, August 1, 2003; 34(8): 2050 - 2059. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M Miyazaki, H Nakamura, M Kubo, Y Kiyohara, Y Oshima, T Ishibashi, and Y Nose Risk factors for age related maculopathy in a Japanese population: the Hisayama study Br J Ophthalmol, April 1, 2003; 87(4): 469 - 472. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. Shahar, L. E. Chambless, W. D. Rosamond, L. L. Boland, C. M. Ballantyne, P. G. McGovern, and A. R. Sharrett Plasma Lipid Profile and Incident Ischemic Stroke: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study Stroke, March 1, 2003; 34(3): 623 - 631. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Arima, Y. Tanizaki, Y. Kiyohara, T. Tsuchihashi, I. Kato, M. Kubo, K. Tanaka, K. Ohkubo, H. Nakamura, I. Abe, et al. Validity of the JNC VI Recommendations for the Management of Hypertension in a General Population of Japanese Elderly: The Hisayama Study Arch Intern Med, February 10, 2003; 163(3): 361 - 366. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J M Wardlaw, S L Keir, and M S Dennis The impact of delays in computed tomography of the brain on the accuracy of diagnosis and subsequent management in patients with minor stroke J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, January 1, 2003; 74(1): 77 - 81. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 T Hirota, T Yamagami, O Tanaka, S Iida, T Kato, T Nakamura, K Ishihara, and T Nishimura Brain infarction after percutaneous implantation of port-catheter system via the left subclavian artery Br. J. Radiol., October 1, 2002; 75(898): 799 - 804. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Nasreen, T. Nabika, H. Shibata, H. Moriyama, K. Yamashita, J. Masuda, and S. Kobayashi T-786C Polymorphism in Endothelial NO Synthase Gene Affects Cerebral Circulation in Smokers: Possible Gene-Environmental Interaction Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, April 1, 2002; 22(4): 605 - 610. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. J. Grau, C. Weimar, F. Buggle, A. Heinrich, M. Goertler, S. Neumaier, J. Glahn, T. Brandt, W. Hacke, and H.-C. Diener Risk Factors, Outcome, and Treatment in Subtypes of Ischemic Stroke: The German Stroke Data Bank Stroke, November 1, 2001; 32(11): 2559 - 2566. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. Nasreen, T. Nabika, H. Shibata, H. Moriyama, K. Yamashita, J. Masuda, and S. Kobayashi T-786C Polymorphism in Endothelial NO Synthase Gene Affects Cerebral Circulation in Smokers: Possible Gene-Environmental Interaction Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, April 1, 2002; 22(4): 605 - 610. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||