(Stroke. 2000;31:440.)
© 2000 American Heart Association, Inc.
Original Contributions |
Health-Related Quality of Life Among Long-Term Survivors of Stroke
Results From the Auckland Stroke Study, 1991–1992
From the Clinical Trials Research Unit, Department of Medicine, The University of Auckland, New Zealand.
Correspondence to Maree Hackett, MA, Clinical Trials Research Unit, Department of Medicine, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand. E-mail m.hackett{at}ctru.auckland.ac.nz
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Abstract |
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Background and Purpose—The consequences of stroke are a major health concern. This study was conducted to compare the health-related quality of life among long-term survivors of stroke with that of the general population.
Methods—Our data are taken from a population-based case-control study of all 6-year survivors of stroke with an age- and sex-matched control population. SF-36 mean scores for cases were compared with raw and standardized control and New Zealand norm mean scores.
Results—Of the original 1761 registered cases, 639 were still alive at 6-year follow-up, and all of these participated in the study. Case patients were more likely than control subjects to be dependent in all basic activities of daily living. Crude mean scores were lower for women; as age increased; for those living in institutions; when the SF-36 was completed by proxy; and when help was required with the activities of daily living. Cases had statistically lower mean scores than both the control group and New Zealand norms for physical functioning and general health. After standardization for age and sex, no differences were found between cases and controls in mental health and bodily pain.
Conclusions—Health-related quality of life appears to be relatively good for the majority of patients 6 years after stroke. Despite significant ongoing physical disability, survivors of stroke appear to adjust well psychologically to their illness.
Key Words: cerebrovascular disorders • stroke outcome • quality of life • health outcome • case control
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Stroke is a major cause of disability in the elderly. When severe, stroke has a substantial impact on the psychological and physical well-being of both patients and their families.1 2 3 4 Given the increases in both relative and absolute numbers of elderly individuals, the long-term consequences of stroke are a major public health concern.5 The rationale, planning, provision, and allocation of health services for patients with stroke require accurate information on outcome and the extent of continuing disability after stroke. There are, however, few population-based studies on the long-term consequences of stroke. Most studies were limited by short-term follow-up,1 2 3 6 7 selection bias due to participants’ being referred to hospital and/or rehabilitation settings,1 2 3 6 8 9 small sample sizes,2 3 6 lack of comparison control populations, and lack of standardization of outcome measures.
The second Auckland Stroke Study was a large, population-based study that has provided important information regarding the incidence and outcome of stroke.5 10 11 12 13 This study was designed to compare health-related quality of life (HRQoL), as determined by the Short Form 36 (SF-36) questionnaire,14 among long-term survivors of stroke (cases) with age- and sex-matched control subjects (controls) and with national population norms.
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Subjects and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Study Population
The methods for identifying cases are reported elsewhere.12 In brief, stroke was defined according to the World Health Organization criteria as rapidly developing signs of focal (or global) disturbance of cerebral function, leading to death or lasting longer than 24 hours, with no apparent cause other than vascular.15 This definition includes spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage but excludes subdural and extradural hematomas and transient ischemic attacks. Systematic searches were made of hospital admissions, death certificates, and autopsy reports for any mention of stroke occurring between March 1, 1991, and February 29, 1992, in Auckland, New Zealand (total population 952 000 from the 1991 census). A cluster sampling method was used to identify nonfatal cases that were managed entirely outside the hospital system. Nonhospitalized nonfatal cases were included if they were registered with 1 of a randomly preselected group of 684 (25%) of all registered general practitioners in Auckland. Cases ascertained in this way were weighted by a factor of 4 to represent the total nonfatal, out-of-hospital treated population as defined by this sampling frame. A total of 1803 acute stroke events were identified in 1761 people.
All cases were contacted 6 years later and invited to participate in the present study. The principal means of contact was by telephone. No limit was placed on the number of attempts made to contact participants, who had previously provided multiple contact details, including those for family members, friends, and general practitioners. Cases who could not be located with these sources were located by use of hospital medical records, the telephone directory, electoral rolls, and neighbors.
Controls
A control group was drawn at random from the General Electoral
Roll for Auckland and frequency-matched to cases according to sex and
10-year age strata. The quotas were slightly inflated to allow for
potential nonresponders, those who could not be contacted, and the fact
that the Electoral Roll contained no sex information. As with cases,
initial contact was made by telephone.
The study was approved by the North Health Ethics Committee of the Auckland Regional Health Funding Authority. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.
Assessments
A research nurse undertook a structured interview, using a
precoded questionnaire, with each case or control or a close relative
or caregiver who was willing to respond on their behalf. In addition to
demographics, residence, and some medical history, information was
obtained on whether participants required assistance across 10 key
items of basic activities of daily living (BADL). Each BADL item was
selected on the basis of its importance in recovery from stroke and
included eating, drinking, transfers, and walking. The acute version of
the SF-36,14 which assesses HRQoL over the last week, was
then administered to cases or controls (or proxies), except for 30
participants who were given the shortened SF-12.
The SF-36 is a generic, subjective measure of HRQoL. It allows assessment across 8 health domains: physical functioning (PF), role limitations due to physical problems (RP), bodily pain (BP), general health (GH), vitality (VT), social functioning (SF), role limitations due to emotional problems (RE), and mental health (MH). Scores of 100 for PF, RP, BP, SF, and RE domains and scores of 50 in the 3 remaining domains, GH, VT, and MH, indicate an absence of problems in those areas. For example, a score of 100 in physical functioning indicates an ability to perform all activities without limitations due to health; a score of 50 in mental health indicates an ability to function without personal or emotional problems. To obtain scores >50 for GH, VT, and MH, health must be evaluated positively. For example, a score of 100 in the mental health domain indicates that the respondent feels peaceful and happy and is calm all the time. The SF-36 has been validated for use among people with stroke6 16 and is considered suitable for administration by face-to-face interview6 17 18 or by telephone.19 20 21 Normal scores are available for the New Zealand population.22
Statistical Analysis
Standard parametric methods were used for
analysis of SF-36 data, with missing data and domain scores
calculated according to accepted guidelines.14 To avoid
dropping more severe cases for whom there were no data for a particular
domain, a score of "0" was assigned when the participant was
assessed to be totally dependent on others for care. For participants
completing the SF-12, scores were calculated only for the RP, SF, and
RE domains. Crude mean scores, grouped by demographic and other
characteristics, were used to compare cases with controls. Control and
New Zealand norm22 mean scores were standardized for age
and sex with the frequency distribution of surviving cases used as the
standard. One-way ANOVA was used for comparison of mean scores.
2 tests were used for comparison of
proportions.
The comparison of cases and controls across BADL items was
presented as crude odds ratios (ORs) calculated by the
Mantel-Haenszel 2 test. Expected survival for
cases over the 6-year follow-up period was calculated by
frequency-matching the total 1761 cases from 1991 to 1992 by age and
sex by use of data provided by Statistics New Zealand.23
All data were analyzed with SAS version 6.12 for
Windows24 and were reported with 95% confidence intervals
(95% CI).
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Of the original 1761 stroke cases who were registered in the Auckland Stroke Study, 639 (36%) survived to 6 years; all of these agreed to participate. (By comparison, the expected 6-year survival for a New Zealand population with an age and sex distribution similar to that of the original 1761 cases would be 66%.) In a follow-up review, these included 522 people who had experienced their first-ever stroke and 117 who experienced a recurrent stroke in 1991 to 1992. The subtype of stroke experienced by cases at the time of registration included CT-confirmed subarachnoid hemorrhage in 45 (7%), primary intracerebral hemorrhage in 31 (5%), cerebral infarction in 172 (27%), and undefined stroke in 391 (61%). Three cases had experienced 2 recurrent stroke events during the 1991–1992 year of ascertainment, while 45 cases had experienced a recurrent stroke during follow-up. There were 14 controls who had a history of stroke since 1992. The control group comprised 310 participants, matched by age and sex, from 388 people from the electoral roll who were approached to participate (64 refused and 14 had moved residence and could not be contacted, with a resulting participation rate of 80%). This allowed detection of an 8-point difference between cases and controls in the physical functioning domain of the SF-36, with 90% power and a significance level of 5%. Both cases and controls included residents of private households and institutions.
Table 1
shows the characteristics
of cases and controls. Interviews, mainly by telephone, were conducted
with 73% of cases and 91% of controls. For the remaining
participants, information was obtained from proxies. Proxy information
was provided for 76% of participants who were resident in an
institution but only 9% of those living at home or other private
accommodation. HRQoL data were not available for 2 cases: 1 refused to
complete the SF-36, and the other did not speak or read English and had
no available proxy.
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The mean age for cases was 71 years (range, 25 to 96 years) and for controls, 70 years (range, 28 to 98 years). Cases were more likely to be taking medication for hypertension than controls (cases, 54% versus controls, 35%, P<0.001), but there was no difference in the proportion who were current smokers (cases, 12% versus controls, 11%, P=0.52).
Overall, 389 cases (61%) stated that they had not recovered completely
from their stroke, and they were significantly more likely to be
dependent in all BADL than controls. As shown in Figure 1, compared with controls, cases were
more likely to be dependent in functional tasks that require dexterity
and mobility, such as dressing (OR, 4.7; 95% CI, 2.9 to 7.4),
transfers in the bathroom (OR, 5.0; 95% CI, 3.3 to 7.7), and walking
outdoors (OR, 5.8; CI, 3.7 to 9.1), more than for drinking (OR, 2.4;
CI, 1 to 5.9), eating (OR, 2.8; CI, 1.4 to 5.7), and washing (OR, 2.8;
CI, 1.5 to 5.1).
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Table 2 shows that the total crude mean
scores for cases were significantly lower than for controls across all
8 domains, with the greatest difference found in PF (difference between
means, 21.8; 95% CI, 17.2 to 26.4) and the smallest difference in BP
(difference between means, 5.2; 95% CI, 1.1 to 9.3). Table 3 summarizes the mean scores for cases
and controls according to various characteristics, including sex, age
group, place of residence, source of information, and whether the
participant was dependent in BADL. Lower scores were observed for
women; as age increased; and for those who were most dependent, as
documented by residency or BADL status. Across the various SF-36
domains, however, the greatest differences between cases and controls
were in PF, RP, GH, VT, and SF.
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Figure 2 shows the differences
between SF-36 mean scores for cases and controls after standardization
for age and sex. Compared with controls, cases had significantly lower
SF-36 scores in PF, RP, GH, and RE, but no differences were found in
BP, VT, SF, and MH. Figure 3 shows the
differences between SF-36 mean scores for cases and New Zealand norms,
after standardization for age and sex. In this analysis, cases
had lower scores than the general population in PF, GH, VT, and SF, but
no differences were found in RP, BP, RE, and MH. That is, the
consistencies of the data are the significantly worse physical health
(PF and GH) but comparable (satisfactory) mental health for cases.
Interestingly, the controls had higher SF-36 scores than New Zealand
norms in RP, GH, RE, and MH after standardization (data not shown).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionSubjects and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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This large, population-based study with complete follow-up has demonstrated that HRQoL was generally good for those who survived to 6 years after stroke. Although the majority of cases were living at home and approximately half had not recovered completely from their stroke, their perceived mental health was as positive as that for the general population.
The strengths of this study include the large and representative study populations and the standardized assessment procedures with the SF-36, a well-validated HRQoL measure. Previous research on quality of life after stroke has often excluded survivors with serious deficits in cognition, speech, and language.25 Members of this "excluded" group are high users of health care resources because of their greater dependency and disability. A complete picture of stroke outcome therefore requires an assessment of these patients’ HRQoL, and for this reason, proxy responses were included in our study. Because this study assessed all survivors of stroke in a defined population, including those who were resident in institutions, severely disabled, or had communication problems, the findings should be considered generalizable to other stroke populations.
Given the inclusion of proxy data, it is important to discuss the
significance of SF-36 scores. In the physical functioning domain,
women, those 
75 years old, those residing in institutions, those
requiring help with daily living, and those responding by proxy all had
mean scores <50. This indicates ongoing limitations in the
performance of everyday physical activities. For general
health, which is both a physical and psychological measure, the
majority of cases were rated positively, with mean scores ranging from
55 to 73. However, among the most elderly (those 85) and the most
disabled, general health was poor, with mean scores of <50.
It is perhaps not too surprising that the greatest difference between cases and controls (and norms) are related to physical functioning, as exemplified by BADL items and SF-36 physical functioning and general health domain scores. There is a considerable body of research on physical disability among survivors of stroke, although the emphasis is on BADL and global measures. The evidence is that more than half of survivors remain dependent on others for self-care tasks of BADL, yet in the long term, most patients report their overall physical function to be at least "good," even up to 20 years after stroke.1 26 27
Of greater significance, though, is the finding of no difference in
mental health between cases and controls (and norms). This is
surprising, given the high prevalence and adverse effects of emotional
disorders among patients with stroke, particularly within the first
year after onset.2 4 7 8 26 28 29 The finding does,
however, support more recent data showing good psychological well-being
among those who survive to several years after stroke.30
One explanation for these data is the greater mortality for patients
with stroke (particularly the elderly and most disabled) than for the
normal population.27 In the Auckland Stroke Study, 3
quarters of all strokes occurred in people 65 years
old.12 Survivors were more likely to have been younger,
single, and living at home and to have remained conscious during the
first 48 hours after onset.11 31 In addition to the
complications of severe disability, comorbid vascular disease and
depressive illness may have also contributed to premature mortality
among those who survive the acute illness. This "natural selection"
has resulted in assessments being undertaken in a "survivor
cohort."
Another explanation for the comparable mental health scores of cases and controls could be a limitation of the SF-36. Although the SF-36 is a well-validated, generic measure of HRQoL, it may not be sensitive or specific enough to detect the psychological domains of mental health that are relevant to patients with stroke. The social functioning domain of the SF-36, for example, does not appear to measure aspects of social functioning that are meaningful to patients with stroke.6 32 Even so, the high absolute and comparable relative mental health scores indicate that survivors of stroke in our population appear to have successfully adjusted to the illness and adapted their lives to any ongoing physical disability.
There are some limitations to our study. To begin with, a small number of participants were included with the SF-12, whereas the New Zealand norms were calculated from noninstitutionalized residents of private households by the standard SF-36.22 It is likely, however, that these 2 questionnaires have comparable domain scores. In addition, it is widely reported in the literature that proxies tend to rate participants as more impaired than participants rate themselves,9 33 34 35 36 38 39 but the agreement between proxies and participants varies considerably across studies.9 35 36 38 Although proxy and self-report assessments of physical functioning and directly observable behavior are well correlated,35 40 41 proxies are less reliable in their assessments of psychological functioning and symptoms of disease.39 41 These studies used participants who are able to communicate. It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to validate proxy responses among participants who are unable to communicate. On balance, though, the benefits of including proxy responses in epidemiological studies probably outweigh the resulting loss of information that occurs when they are excluded. Our controls are subject to a degree of participation and assessment bias. Because the research nurse was not blinded to participants’ health status, there may have been some nondifferential bias in the assessment of cases and controls. We are unable to determine how those people who refused to participate differed from controls. To control for potential selection bias, cases were also compared with SF-36 data for New Zealand norms. For controls, which included institutionalized participants, SF-36 scores were higher than New Zealand norms in 4 SF-36 domains, indicating a "healthy participant" group. It should also be noted that the New Zealand population has higher mean scores across all SF-36 domains than do Australian and American populations,22 emphasizing the importance of using comparison assessments drawn from similar populations when assessing the significance of health outcomes.
In summary, these data indicate that HRQoL 6 years after stroke is acceptable for the majority of survivors, even though many experience ongoing limitations of their physical function. Survivors of stroke do not experience any more pain than the general population, and general health is rated positively by most. Only a minority of long-term survivors of stroke are extremely disabled and require heavy nursing care in institutions. Most people are living at home and coping well psychologically, despite ongoing physical disability after stroke.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported in part by grants from the Health Research Council of New Zealand, the National Heart Foundation of New Zealand, and the Grand Lodge of Freemasons of New Zealand. We thank Dr Alain C. Vandal and Dr Derrick Bennett for statistical support and Cherie Mulholland and Sue Hawkins, who were involved in data collection.
Received September 14, 1999; revision received November 22, 1999; accepted November 22, 1999.
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D. S. Nichols-Larsen, P.C. Clark, A. Zeringue, A. Greenspan, and S. Blanton Factors Influencing Stroke Survivors' Quality of Life During Subacute Recovery Stroke, July 1, 2005; 36(7): 1480 - 1484. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. W. Sturm, G. A. Donnan, H. M. Dewey, R. A. L. Macdonell, A. K. Gilligan, V. Srikanth, and A. G. Thrift Quality of Life After Stroke: The North East Melbourne Stroke Incidence Study (NEMESIS) Stroke, October 1, 2004; 35(10): 2340 - 2345. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. S. Anderson, K. N. Carter, W. J. Brownlee, M. L. Hackett, J. B. Broad, and R. Bonita Very Long-Term Outcome After Stroke in Auckland, New Zealand Stroke, August 1, 2004; 35(8): 1920 - 1924. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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U. Sveen, B. Thommessen, E. Bautz-Holter, T. B. Wyller, and K. Laake Well-being and instrumental activities of daily living after stroke Clinical Rehabilitation, March 1, 2004; 18(3): 267 - 274. [Abstract] [PDF]
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K. Hardie, G. J. Hankey, K. Jamrozik, R. J. Broadhurst, and C. Anderson Ten-Year Risk of First Recurrent Stroke and Disability After First-Ever Stroke in the Perth Community Stroke Study Stroke, March 1, 2004; 35(3): 731 - 735. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 E-M Chia, P Mitchell, E Rochtchina, S Foran, and J J Wang Unilateral visual impairment and health related quality of life: the Blue Mountains Eye Study Br J Ophthalmol, April 1, 2003; 87(4): 392 - 395. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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W. M. Hopman and J. Verner Quality of Life During and After Inpatient Stroke Rehabilitation Stroke, March 1, 2003; 34(3): 801 - 805. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. J. Hankey, K. Jamrozik, R. J. Broadhurst, S. Forbes, and C. S. Anderson Long-Term Disability After First-Ever Stroke and Related Prognostic Factors in the Perth Community Stroke Study, 1989-1990 Stroke, April 1, 2002; 33(4): 1034 - 1040. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Sappok, A. Faulstich, E. Stuckert, H. Kruck, P. Marx, and H.-C. Koennecke Compliance With Secondary Prevention of Ischemic Stroke: A Prospective Evaluation Stroke, August 1, 2001; 32(8): 1884 - 1889. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. O. Tengs, M. Yu, E. Luistro, and H. B. Bosworth Health-Related Quality of Life After Stroke A Comprehensive Review Editorial Comment : Health-Related Quality Of Life After Stroke: A Comprehensive Review Stroke, April 1, 2001; 32(4): 964 - 972. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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