doi: 10.1161/hs1101.098151
(Stroke. 2001;32:2575.)
© 2001 American Heart Association, Inc.
Original Contributions |
Plasma Concentration of C-Reactive Protein and Risk of Ischemic Stroke and Transient Ischemic Attack
The Framingham Study
From the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute’s Framingham Study (P.A.W., C.S.K., M.K.-H., P.W.F.W.), Framingham, Mass, and the Departments of Neurology (N.S.R., P.A.W., C.S.K., M.K.-H.), Mathematics and Statistics (H.S., R.B.D), Epidemiology and Biostatistics (J.M.M.), Biochemistry (C.F.), and Medicine (P.W.F.W.), Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Mass.
Correspondence to Philip A. Wolf, MD, Neurological Epidemiology and Genetics, Boston University School of Medicine, 715 Albany St, B-608, Boston, MA 02118-2526. E-mail pawolf{at}bu.edu
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Abstract |
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Background—— The role of C-reactive protein (CRP) as a novel plasma marker of atherothrombotic disease is currently under investigation. Previous studies have mostly related CRP to coronary heart disease, were often restricted to a case-control design, and failed to include pertinent risk factors to evaluate the joint and net effect of CRP on the outcome. We related plasma CRP levels to incidence of first ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA) in the Framingham Study original cohort.
Methods—— There were 591 men and 871 women free of stroke/TIA during their 1980 to 1982 clinic examinations, when their mean age was 69.7 years. CRP levels were measured by using an enzyme immunoassay on previously frozen serum samples. Analyses were based on sex-specific CRP quartiles. Risk ratios (RRs) were derived, and series of trend analyses were performed.
Results—— During 12 to 14 years of follow-up, 196 ischemic strokes and TIAs occurred. Independent of age, men in the highest CRP quartile had 2 times the risk of ischemic stroke/TIA (RR=2.0, P=0.027), and women had almost 3 times the risk (RR=2.7, P=0.0003) compared with those in the lowest quartile. Assessment of the trend in risk across quartiles showed unadjusted risk increase for men (RR=1.347, P=0.0025) and women (RR=1.441, P=0.0001). After adjustment for smoking, total/HDL cholesterol, systolic blood pressure, and diabetes, the increase in risk across CRP quartiles remained statistically significant for both men (P=0.0365) and women (P=0.0084).
Conclusions—— Independent of other cardiovascular risk factors, elevated plasma CRP levels significantly predict the risk of future ischemic stroke and TIA in the elderly.
Key Words: atherosclerosis • C-reactive protein • inflammation • ischemic stroke • risk factors • TIA
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Introduction |
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An increasing body of evidence has linked inflammation with the pathogenesis of atherothrombotic stroke. Infections and inflammation may promote atherosclerosis and thrombosis by elevating serum levels of fibrinogen,1 leukocytes,2 clotting factors,3 and cytokines4 and by altering the metabolism and functions of endothelial cells and monocyte macrophages.5 Low-grade infections, reflected in elevated levels of various acute-phase proteins,6 may be partly responsible for the inflammatory processes observed in atherosclerotic lesions, which in turn may relate to the occurrence of ischemic symptoms.
C-reactive protein (CRP), an acute-phase reactant, is an indicator of underlying systemic inflammation and a novel plasma marker for atherothrombotic disease. The recent use of highly sensitive CRP assays, with international reference standards set by the World Health Organization (WHO),7 has enhanced the usefulness of CRP as a reliable predictor of cardiovascular events. A strong and consistent association between clinical manifestations of atherothrombotic disease and baseline CRP levels has been described in epidemiological studies of patients with acute myocardial ischemia8 or myocardial infarction,9,10 stable and unstable angina pectoris,11 and myocardial infarction or recurrent ischemia among those hospitalized with angina pectoris.12,13 Large prospective studies in apparently healthy subjects confirmed the prognostic relevance of CRP to (1) the risk of cardiovascular disease in men,14 women,15,16 and the elderly17,18; (2) the risk of fatal coronary disease among smokers with multiple risk factors for atherosclerosis19; (3) the development of peripheral vascular disease20; and (4) the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) in a large cohort of initially healthy middle-aged men.21
Most researchers have used a case-control design,8–13 have focused on selected subject populations,14–21 and have largely investigated men,8–14,20,21 with few studies of women.15–17 Furthermore, limited availability of other pertinent risk factors in some of these studies has not permitted determination of the joint and net effect of CRP levels on the outcome. Last, the research findings linking CRP to atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease have mostly focused on CHD8–11,13–17,19,21 or have used cardiovascular "events" (encompassing fatal CHD, nonfatal myocardial infarction or stroke, and coronary revascularization procedures) instead of stroke as the specific outcome of interest,15,16 and there have been only a few large-scale prospective epidemiological studies of stroke.14 To address the issue of baseline CRP levels and risk of subsequent stroke events, we measured the concentration of CRP in members of the Framingham Study original cohort who were free of stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA) at the time of their 1980 to 1982 clinic examination and related the baseline plasma concentrations of CRP to incident first ischemic stroke or TIA in these subjects during a 12- to 14-year follow-up period.
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Subjects and Methods |
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Subjects and Definition of Clinical Outcome
The Framingham Study was begun in 1948 to explore risk factors for and consequences of cardiovascular disease in a longitudinal community-based population sample. At entry, there were 5209 male and female participants who were aged 28 to 62 years. The subjects have been examined biennially with routine assessment of medical history, physical examination, blood tests, and 12-lead ECGs. The examination procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board of Boston Medical Center, and all subjects gave informed consent. Study design, response rates, and completeness of follow-up have been reported elsewhere.22
For the present study, we related CRP level at biennial examinations 16 and 17 (1980 to 1982) to ischemic stroke or TIA incidence during 12 to 14 years of follow-up at examination 23 (1994). Of the initial Framingham Study cohort, 2999 subjects were alive and stroke free on January 1, 1982. At the time of the clinic examinations from 1980 to 1982, nonfasting blood specimens were obtained from 591 men and 871 women of the original cohort who were free of stroke or TIA. This study population represented approximately 60% of living subjects who attended the clinic examination, and frozen specimens were available for almost all of these participants (an overall inclusion rate of 50% of the living subjects). Subjects were followed up over a 12- to 14-year period for the development of incident ischemic stroke, including atherothrombotic brain infarction, cerebral embolism, or TIA. Most subjects with stroke or suspected stroke had been hospitalized in the only general hospital in Framingham, where they were evaluated by a Framingham Study neurologist within a few days (often within hours) after onset. The criteria for stroke were met by the presence of a neurological deficit of sudden or rapid onset that persisted for 
24 hours, and the events were adjudicated by a panel of 2 neurologists. CT scans and MRI studies of the brain and arteries were available to confirm the diagnosis; since 1982, 91.5% have had at least 1 CT or MRI scan of the brain and arteries, and many have undergone >1 study.23
Assessment of the Risk Factors
Baseline covariables assessed for the present analysis included plasma CRP, age, sex, systolic blood pressure, cigarette smoking, total and HDL cholesterol levels, and diabetes. Nonfasting blood specimens were obtained from all subjects at biennial examinations 16 and 17, and the serum aliquots were stored at -20°C until mid-1997. Plasma concentrations of CRP were measured by use of a standardized commercial biochemical assay (Hemagen Diagnostics). Total and HDL cholesterol levels were assessed from fresh nonfasting plasma samples by standard Lipid Research Clinics techniques.24 Diabetes was defined as use of insulin preparations or oral hypoglycemic agents or any recorded blood glucose level of 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL). Persons reporting cigarette smoking during the past year were considered smokers. Systolic blood pressure was recorded with patients in the sitting position after at least 5 minutes of rest. On the basis of 2 consecutive measurements, elevated systolic blood pressure of 140 mm Hg and/or diastolic blood pressure of 90 mm Hg was defined as hypertension.
Laboratory Procedures
Serum concentrations of CRP were measured with an ultrasensitive enzyme immunoassay by using monospecific polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies produced by immunization with highly purified CRP. Briefly, the IgG fraction of polyclonal goat anti-human CRP antiserum was immobilized on the inner surface of microwell plates. One hundred microliters (at 1:100 dilution) of each serum sample was introduced into the test wells. The titer plates were incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature and then washed 4 times with rinsing solution. Aliquots (100 µL) of secondary rabbit anti-human CRP antibody conjugated to horseradish peroxidase were added to each well and incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature. At the end of the incubation, the plates were rinsed 4 times with rinsing solution. Horseradish peroxidase activity was determined by the addition of 100 µL of the substrate 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine, followed by incubation for 30 minutes at room temperature. The enzymatic reaction was stopped by transferring 50 µL of 1N H2SO4. The optical density of the product was quantified in an enzyme immunoassay plate reader at a wavelength of 450 nm. A standard curve was generated by using known concentrations of human serum CRP as an internal control in each experiment. The concentration of CRP in the test samples was determined from the standard curve. To verify the accuracy of CRP results interpolated from the standard curve, the WHO standard preparation7,25 was serially diluted in the working range of the kit. The response of the Hemagen CRP150 Kit was linear with a coefficient of determination (r2) >0.99 and colinear with the standard curve of the assay. On split specimens, the correlation coefficient was 0.86.
Statistical Analyses
Analyses were performed separately for men and women by using sex-specific quartiles (Q1 to Q4) of CRP (men: Q1=0 to 1.08, Q2=1.10 to 3.0, Q3=3.03 to 6.80, and Q4=6.90 to 48.30 µg/mL; women: Q1=0 to 1.00, Q2=1.02 to 3.19, Q3=3.20 to 7.31, and Q4=7.33 to 50.20 µg/mL).
Unadjusted, bivariate (adjusted for age), and multivariate (adjusted for age, smoking, total and HDL cholesterol, systolic blood pressure, and diabetes) risk ratio (RR) estimates (with 95% CIs) for plasma CRP quartiles were generated by Cox proportional hazards modeling by using CRP quartiles as the independent variable. These RRs were derived by using the lowest quartile (Q1) as the referent group.
For each of the unadjusted, bivariate, and multivariate Cox regression analyses, a trend analysis was performed to determine whether the risk of first ischemic stroke/TIA increased as the CRP quartile increased.
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Results |
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Study participant characteristics were recorded at biennial examinations 16 and 17 (Table 1). The cohort (n=1462) was followed for up to 14 years. During this time, 196 (13.4%) first cerebrovascular events (ischemic stroke or TIA) occurred; 82 (13.9%) occurred in men, and 114 (13.1%) occurred in women.
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Unadjusted relative risk of first ischemic stroke or TIA increased significantly with each increasing quartile of baseline plasma CRP concentrations in both sexes (Table 2). Men with plasma CRP levels in the third quartile (3.03 µg/mL) had an unadjusted relative risk of first ischemic stroke/TIA almost 2 times greater than the relative risk for those in Q1 (RR=1.9, P=0.037). A similar association was found for women in the third quartile of CRP (RR=1.8, P=0.033). Even greater relative risks were observed for men (RR=2.0, P=0.028) and women (RR=2.9, P=0.0001) in the highest sex-specific quartiles of CRP.
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Adjustment for age in Table 3 did not attenuate the response, and the top 2 CRP quartiles were consistently associated with an increased risk of first ischemic stroke/TIA in men and women.
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After multivariate adjustment, the Q4 plasma CRP levels were related to a 1.6-fold increase in risk of first ischemic stroke/TIA in men, a result that was no longer statistically significant (P=0.123). However, for women in the highest CRP quartile, the relative risk of first ischemic stroke or TIA remained significantly increased after multivariate adjustment (RR=2.1, P=0.008; Table 3).
In the series of trend analyses, the unadjusted relative risk of first ischemic stroke/TIA for an increase in CRP from one quartile to the next higher quartile was 1.347 in men (P=0.0025) and 1.441 in women (P=0.0001). Statistical significance of this trend was not altered by the age adjustment (men: RR=1.346, P=0.0027; women: RR=1.411, P=0.0002). Multivariate adjustment did not attenuate the response in men (RR=1.248, P=0.0365) or women (RR=1.288, P=0.0084) (Table 4).
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Discussion |
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More than 700 000 strokes occur in the United States each year,26 and it is paramount to identify new risk markers and preventive strategies for ischemic cerebrovascular disease.
Ischemic cerebrovascular disease accounts for a substantial proportion of all strokes.27 Although the proximate cause of most brain infarcts is thrombus formation, atherosclerosis is the chief underlying cause.28,29 The lesions of atherosclerosis represent a series of specific cellular and molecular responses that include lipoprotein, hematologic, mechanical, and inflammatory components.29 CRP, one of the acute-phase reactants, is an indicator of underlying systemic inflammation30 and a novel plasma marker of atherothrombotic disease.31–33 It is likely that CRP has many pathophysiological roles in the inflammatory process, including binding of phosphocholine and recognition of foreign pathogens and phospholipid constituents of damaged cells.30 A recent meta-analysis of several prospective studies of CRP and cardiovascular disease showed that the relative risk for CHD among individuals with CRP values in the top third compared with those in the bottom third was 1.7 (95% CI 1.4 to 2.1).31 However, few prospective epidemiological studies of stroke and markers of inflammation have been performed to date. Previous data on plasma CRP levels and ischemic stroke have suggested that this plasma marker is an independent predictor of the risk of future stroke.14,15 Men with the highest baseline CRP values had twice the risk of ischemic stroke,14 and women with the highest CRP levels had a 5-fold increase in risk of any vascular event and a 7-fold increase in risk of the combined outcome of myocardial infarction or stroke.15
Our prospective data from a large community-based cohort of men and women free of stroke and TIA demonstrate a strong relationship between plasma CRP and incidence of first ischemic stroke or TIA in both sexes. This relationship is linear and consistent with the CRP quartile gradation in both men and women. These data demonstrate a graded increase in the incidence of ischemic stroke and TIA with increased levels of CRP, even when the values were within the normal range. Furthermore, in trend analyses, shown in Table 4, this relationship persisted after adjusting for a number of potential confounders, including smoking, systolic blood pressure, total and HDL cholesterol, and diabetes. Elevated serum levels of CRP are not disease specific but are sensitive markers produced in response to tissue injury, infectious agents, immunologic stimuli, and inflammation. Cytokines such as interleukin-6, interleukin-1, and tumor necrosis factor-
are highly correlated with CRP levels and their function.34
Inflammation is only one of multiple factors that can foster an increased risk of acute ischemic events. CRP levels are known to be greater in smokers,35,36 obese individuals (body mass index >130% of the ideal), individuals with abnormal fibrinolytic activity (plasmin-antiplasmin complex), and individuals with subclinical atherosclerosis.37,38 Overall, these data support the view that CRP, as a marker of low-level inflammation, predicts an increased risk of atherothrombotic events in otherwise healthy individuals. In addition, inflammation not only appears to be a response to the underlying atherosclerotic disease process but also may be an integral part of it.36 This is consistent with the beneficial effects of anti-inflammatory agents, such as aspirin, in reducing the risk of cardiovascular events in men.14 The substantial reduction of risk of myocardial infarction in subjects with high baseline CRP levels who were treated with aspirin14 may suggest a beneficial anti-inflammatory effect of the drug that becomes detectable in low-risk patients. Unfortunately, we do not have adequate aspirin intake data in the present study to address this issue.
Our findings are based on the 1-time measurement of the plasma CRP levels, which may not completely and accurately reflect the status of the study participants over a prolonged follow-up period. However, this source of variability could not account for the relationship observed in the present study, because a random misclassification of such nature would tend to underestimate study findings and bias the results toward the null hypothesis. The nested prospective cohort design allows us to exclude the possibility that acute ischemia affected the levels of plasma CRP in the study participants. The data were obtained in an elderly cohort of men and women, and this may limit the applicability of the results to younger men and women.
We conclude that elevated plasma CRP levels significantly predict greater risk of ischemic stroke or TIA in elderly men and women. If the results of the present study are confirmed in other analyses of large population-based cohorts of men and women, the inclusion of CRP as a risk factor for ischemic stroke or TIA would have important implications. The addition of CRP levels in the highest quartile to the risk factor profile of the elderly may significantly increase the predictability of incident ischemic stroke or TIA. Thus, the use of CRP values may aid in identifying a potentially large number of men and women who are at risk for cerebrovascular events. This, in turn, may lead to the development of new treatment strategies for primary stroke prevention in those individuals identified as being at risk for developing cerebrovascular disease.
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported in part by a contract (NO1-HC-38038) with the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and by a grant from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (5-RO1-NS-17950-19).
Received February 28, 2001; revision received July 14, 2001; accepted July 17, 2001.
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 T. B. Vaughan, F. Ovalle, and E. Moreland Vascular disease in paediatric type 2 diabetes: the state of the art Diabetes and Vascular Disease Research, December 1, 2007; 4(4): 297 - 304. [Abstract] [PDF]
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 P. S. Mullenix, S. R. Steele, M. J. Martin, B. W. Starnes, and C. A. Andersen C-reactive Protein Level and Traditional Vascular Risk Factors in the Prediction of Carotid Stenosis Arch Surg, November 1, 2007; 142(11): 1066 - 1071. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Sander, C. Schulze Horn, C. Briesenick, and D. Sander High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein Is Independently Associated With Early Carotid Artery Progression in Women But Not in Men: The INVADE Study Stroke, November 1, 2007; 38(11): 2881 - 2886. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 D. N. Patel, C. A. King, S. R. Bailey, J. W. Holt, K. Venkatachalam, A. Agrawal, A. J. Valente, and B. Chandrasekar Interleukin-17 Stimulates C-reactive Protein Expression in Hepatocytes and Smooth Muscle Cells via p38 MAPK and ERK1/2-dependent NF-{kappa}B and C/EBPbeta Activation J. Biol. Chem., September 14, 2007; 282(37): 27229 - 27238. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 P. M. Ridker C-Reactive Protein and the Prediction of Cardiovascular Events Among Those at Intermediate Risk: Moving an Inflammatory Hypothesis Toward Consensus J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., May 29, 2007; 49(21): 2129 - 2138. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Z. S. Tan, A. S. Beiser, R. S. Vasan, R. Roubenoff, C. A. Dinarello, T. B. Harris, E. J. Benjamin, R. Au, D. P. Kiel, P. A. Wolf, et al. Inflammatory markers and the risk of Alzheimer disease: The Framingham Study Neurology, May 29, 2007; 68(22): 1902 - 1908. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 P. M Ridker and B. M. Everett Letter by Ridker and Everett Regarding Article, "The Inflammatory Hypothesis: Any Progress in Risk Stratification and Therapeutic Targets?" Circulation, May 22, 2007; 115(20): e475 - e475. [Full Text] [PDF]
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I. Tzoulaki, G. D. Murray, A. J. Lee, A. Rumley, G. D.O. Lowe, and F. G. R. Fowkes Relative Value of Inflammatory, Hemostatic, and Rheological Factors for Incident Myocardial Infarction and Stroke: The Edinburgh Artery Study Circulation, April 24, 2007; 115(16): 2119 - 2127. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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O. Schlager, M. Exner, W. Mlekusch, S. Sabeti, J. Amighi, P. Dick, O. Wagner, R. Koppensteiner, E. Minar, and M. Schillinger C-Reactive Protein Predicts Future Cardiovascular Events in Patients With Carotid Stenosis Stroke, April 1, 2007; 38(4): 1263 - 1268. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 P. M Ridker, J. E. Buring, N. Rifai, and N. R. Cook Development and Validation of Improved Algorithms for the Assessment of Global Cardiovascular Risk in Women: The Reynolds Risk Score JAMA, February 14, 2007; 297(6): 611 - 619. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 E. R. Bates, C. J. D. Babb, D. E. Casey, C. U. Cates, G. R. Duckwiler, T. E. Feldman, W. A. Gray, K. Ouriel, E. D. Peterson, K. Rosenfield, et al. ACCF/SCAI/SVMB/SIR/ASITN 2007 Clinical Expert Consensus Document on Carotid Stenting: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Documents (ACCF/SCAI/SVMB/SIR/ASITN Clinical Expert Consensus Document Committee on Carotid Stenting) Vascular Medicine, February 1, 2007; 12(1): 35 - 83. [PDF]
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 L. Deutsch Evaluation of the Effect of Neptune Krill Oil on Chronic Inflammation and Arthritic Symptoms J. Am. Coll. Nutr., February 1, 2007; 26(1): 39 - 48. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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American Society of Interventional & Therapeutic N, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interve, Society for Vascular Medicine and Biology, Society of Interventional Radiology, E. R. Bates, J. D. Babb, D. E. Casey Jr, C. U. Cates, G. R. Duckwiler, T. E. Feldman, et al. ACCF/SCAI/SVMB/SIR/ASITN 2007 Clinical Expert Consensus Document on Carotid Stenting: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Documents (ACCF/SCAI/SVMB/SIR/ASITN Clinical Expert Consensus Document Committee on Carotid Stenting) J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., January 2, 2007; 49(1): 126 - 170. [Full Text] [PDF]
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B. M. Everett, T. Kurth, J. E. Buring, and P. M. Ridker The Relative Strength of C-Reactive Protein and Lipid Levels as Determinants of Ischemic Stroke Compared With Coronary Heart Disease in Women J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., December 5, 2006; 48(11): 2235 - 2242. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Libby and P. M. Ridker Inflammation and Atherothrombosis: From Population Biology and Bench Research to Clinical Practice J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., October 27, 2006; 48(9_Suppl_A): A33 - A46. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. J. Bos, C. M. A. Schipper, P. J. Koudstaal, J. C.M. Witteman, A. Hofman, and M. M.B. Breteler High Serum C-Reactive Protein Level Is Not an Independent Predictor for Stroke: The Rotterdam Study Circulation, October 10, 2006; 114(15): 1591 - 1598. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Sato, H. Iso, H. Noda, A. Kitamura, H. Imano, M. Kiyama, T. Ohira, T. Okada, M. Yao, T. Tanigawa, et al. Plasma Fibrinogen Concentrations and Risk of Stroke and Its Subtypes Among Japanese Men and Women Stroke, October 1, 2006; 37(10): 2488 - 2492. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. D. Bushnell, P. Hurn, C. Colton, V. M. Miller, G. del Zoppo, M. S.V. Elkind, B. Stern, D. Herrington, G. Ford-Lynch, P. Gorelick, et al. Advancing the Study of Stroke in Women: Summary and Recommendations for Future Research From an NINDS-Sponsored Multidisciplinary Working Group Stroke, September 1, 2006; 37(9): 2387 - 2399. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. Dziedzic Systemic inflammatory markers and risk of dementia. American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias, August 1, 2006; 21(4): 258 - 262. [Abstract] [PDF]
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G. J. Hankey Potential New Risk Factors for Ischemic Stroke: What Is Their Potential? Stroke, August 1, 2006; 37(8): 2181 - 2188. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Somani, P. J. Grant, K. Kain, A. J. Catto, and A. M. Carter Complement C3 and C-Reactive Protein Are Elevated in South Asians Independent of a Family History of Stroke Stroke, August 1, 2006; 37(8): 2001 - 2006. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Ladenvall, K. Jood, C. Blomstrand, S. Nilsson, C. Jern, and P. Ladenvall Serum C-Reactive Protein Concentration and Genotype in Relation to Ischemic Stroke Subtype Stroke, August 1, 2006; 37(8): 2018 - 2023. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. Tanne, M. Benderly, U. Goldbourt, M. Haim, A. Tenenbaum, E. Z. Fisman, Z. Matas, Y. Adler, R. Zimmlichman, and S. Behar C-Reactive Protein as a Predictor of Incident Ischemic Stroke Among Patients With Preexisting Cardiovascular Disease Stroke, July 1, 2006; 37(7): 1720 - 1724. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 P. Ridker, N. Rifai, W. Koenig, and R. S. Blumenthal C-reactive protein and cardiovascular risk in the framingham study. Arch Intern Med, June 26, 2006; 166(12): 1327 - 1328. [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. B. Goldstein, R. Adams, M. J. Alberts, L. J. Appel, L. M. Brass, C. D. Bushnell, A. Culebras, T. J. DeGraba, P. B. Gorelick, J. R. Guyton, et al. Primary Prevention of Ischemic Stroke: A Guideline From the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council: Cosponsored by the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease Interdisciplinary Working Group; Cardiovascular Nursing Council; Clinical Cardiology Council; Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism Council; and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group: The American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline. Circulation, June 20, 2006; 113(24): e873 - e923. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. M. Bokesch, G. A. Izykenova, J. B. Justice, K. A. Easley, and S. A. Dambinova NMDA Receptor Antibodies Predict Adverse Neurological Outcome After Cardiac Surgery in High-Risk Patients Stroke, June 1, 2006; 37(6): 1432 - 1436. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. B. Goldstein, R. Adams, M. J. Alberts, L. J. Appel, L. M. Brass, C. D. Bushnell, A. Culebras, T. J. DeGraba, P. B. Gorelick, J. R. Guyton, et al. Primary Prevention of Ischemic Stroke: A Guideline From the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council: Cosponsored by the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease Interdisciplinary Working Group; Cardiovascular Nursing Council; Clinical Cardiology Council; Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism Council; and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group: The American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline. Stroke, June 1, 2006; 37(6): 1583 - 1633. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Poirier, T. D. Giles, G. A. Bray, Y. Hong, J. S. Stern, F. X. Pi-Sunyer, and R. H. Eckel Obesity and cardiovascular disease: pathophysiology, evaluation, and effect of weight loss. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, May 1, 2006; 26(5): 968 - 976. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Tsimikas, J. T. Willerson, and P. M. Ridker C-reactive protein and other emerging blood biomarkers to optimize risk stratification of vulnerable patients. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., April 18, 2006; 47(8 Suppl): C19 - C31. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Poirier, T. D. Giles, G. A. Bray, Y. Hong, J. S. Stern, F. X. Pi-Sunyer, and R. H. Eckel Obesity and Cardiovascular Disease: Pathophysiology, Evaluation, and Effect of Weight Loss: An Update of the 1997 American Heart Association Scientific Statement on Obesity and Heart Disease From the Obesity Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism Circulation, February 14, 2006; 113(6): 898 - 918. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. R. Pijak Rebound Inflammation and the Risk of Ischemic Stroke After Discontinuation of Aspirin Therapy Arch Neurol, February 1, 2006; 63(2): 300 - 301. [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. M. Crimmins and C. E. Finch Infection, inflammation, height, and longevity PNAS, January 10, 2006; 103(2): 498 - 503. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Khera, J. A. de Lemos, R. M. Peshock, H. S. Lo, H. G. Stanek, S. A. Murphy, F. H. Wians Jr, S. M. Grundy, and D. K. McGuire Relationship Between C-Reactive Protein and Subclinical Atherosclerosis: The Dallas Heart Study Circulation, January 3, 2006; 113(1): 38 - 43. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 C. J. Boos, R. A. Anderson, and G. Y.H. Lip Is atrial fibrillation an inflammatory disorder? Eur. Heart J., January 2, 2006; 27(2): 136 - 149. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. J. Campbell, M. Woodward, J. P. Chalmers, S. A. Colman, A. J. Jenkins, B. E. Kemp, B. C. Neal, A. Patel, and S. W. MacMahon Soluble Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule 1 and N-terminal Pro-B-Type Natriuretic Peptide in Predicting Ischemic Stroke in Patients With Cerebrovascular Disease Arch Neurol, January 1, 2006; 63(1): 60 - 65. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. Wakugawa, Y. Kiyohara, Y. Tanizaki, M. Kubo, T. Ninomiya, J. Hata, Y. Doi, K. Okubo, Y. Oishi, K. Shikata, et al. C-Reactive Protein and Risk of First-Ever Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke in a General Japanese Population: The Hisayama Study Stroke, January 1, 2006; 37(1): 27 - 32. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. R. Kizer, D. O. Wiebers, J. P. Whisnant, J. M. Galloway, T. K. Welty, E. T. Lee, L. G. Best, H. E. Resnick, M. J. Roman, and R. B. Devereux Mitral Annular Calcification, Aortic Valve Sclerosis, and Incident Stroke in Adults Free of Clinical Cardiovascular Disease: The Strong Heart Study Stroke, December 1, 2005; 36(12): 2533 - 2537. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. W. F. Wilson, B.-H. Nam, M. Pencina, R. B. D'Agostino Sr, E. J. Benjamin, and C. J. O'Donnell C-Reactive Protein and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in Men and Women From the Framingham Heart Study Arch Intern Med, November 28, 2005; 165(21): 2473 - 2478. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. M. Ballantyne, R. C. Hoogeveen, H. Bang, J. Coresh, A. R. Folsom, L. E. Chambless, M. Myerson, K. K. Wu, A. R. Sharrett, and E. Boerwinkle Lipoprotein-Associated Phospholipase A2, High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein, and Risk for Incident Ischemic Stroke in Middle-aged Men and Women in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study Arch Intern Med, November 28, 2005; 165(21): 2479 - 2484. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Allard, P. R. Burkhard, P. Lescuyer, J. A. Burgess, N. Walter, D. F. Hochstrasser, and J.-C. Sanchez PARK7 and Nucleoside Diphosphate Kinase A as Plasma Markers for the Early Diagnosis of Stroke Clin. Chem., November 1, 2005; 51(11): 2043 - 2051. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. A. Lakka, H.-M. Lakka, T. Rankinen, A. S. Leon, D.C. Rao, J. S. Skinner, J. H. Wilmore, and C. Bouchard Effect of exercise training on plasma levels of C-reactive protein in healthy adults: the HERITAGE Family Study Eur. Heart J., October 1, 2005; 26(19): 2018 - 2025. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Makita, M. Nakamura, and K. Hiramori The Association of C-Reactive Protein Levels With Carotid Intima-Media Complex Thickness and Plaque Formation in the General Population Stroke, October 1, 2005; 36(10): 2138 - 2142. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. P. Grocott, W. D. White, R. W. Morris, M. V. Podgoreanu, J. P. Mathew, D. M. Nielsen, D. A. Schwinn, M. F. Newman, and for the Perioperative Genetics and Safety Outcomes Genetic Polymorphisms and the Risk of Stroke After Cardiac Surgery Stroke, September 1, 2005; 36(9): 1854 - 1858. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. K.S. Craft, E. R. Glasper, L. McCullough, N. Zhang, N. Sugo, T. Otsuka, P. D. Hurn, and A. C. DeVries Social Interaction Improves Experimental Stroke Outcome Stroke, September 1, 2005; 36(9): 2006 - 2011. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. E. Hafer-Macko, S. Yu, A. S. Ryan, F. M. Ivey, and R. F. Macko Elevated Tumor Necrosis Factor-{alpha} in Skeletal Muscle After Stroke Stroke, September 1, 2005; 36(9): 2021 - 2023. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. J. van Dijk, N. D. Prins, S. E. Vermeer, H. A. Vrooman, A. Hofman, P. J. Koudstaal, and M. M.B. Breteler C-Reactive Protein and Cerebral Small-Vessel Disease: The Rotterdam Scan Study Circulation, August 9, 2005; 112(6): 900 - 905. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Khera, D. K. McGuire, S. A. Murphy, H. G. Stanek, S. R. Das, W. Vongpatanasin, F. H. Wians Jr, S. M. Grundy, and J. A. de Lemos Race and Gender Differences in C-Reactive Protein Levels J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., August 2, 2005; 46(3): 464 - 469. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Di Napoli, M. Schwaninger, R. Cappelli, E. Ceccarelli, G. Di Gianfilippo, C. Donati, H. C.A. Emsley, S. Forconi, S. J. Hopkins, L. Masotti, et al. Evaluation of C-Reactive Protein Measurement for Assessing the Risk and Prognosis in Ischemic Stroke: A Statement for Health Care Professionals From the CRP Pooling Project Members Stroke, June 1, 2005; 36(6): 1316 - 1329. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Schillinger, M. Exner, W. Mlekusch, S. Sabeti, J. Amighi, R. Nikowitsch, E. Timmel, B. Kickinger, C. Minar, M. Pones, et al. Inflammation and Carotid Artery--Risk for Atherosclerosis Study (ICARAS) Circulation, May 3, 2005; 111(17): 2203 - 2209. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 B. J. Nicklas, T. You, and M. Pahor Behavioural treatments for chronic systemic inflammation: effects of dietary weight loss and exercise training Can. Med. Assoc. J., April 26, 2005; 172(9): 1199 - 1209. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Slowik, A. Borratynska, W. Turaj, J. Pera, T. Dziedzic, D. A. Figlewicz, M. Betlej, T. Krzyszkowski, R. Czepko, and A. Szczudlik {alpha}1-Antichymotrypsin Gene (SERPINA3) A/T Polymorphism as a Risk Factor for Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Stroke, April 1, 2005; 36(4): 737 - 740. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Genius, T. Dong-Si, A. P. Grau, and C. Lichy Postacute C-Reactive Protein Levels Are Elevated in Cervical Artery Dissection Stroke, April 1, 2005; 36(4): e42 - e44. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H.-H. S. Oei, I. M. van der Meer, A. Hofman, P. J. Koudstaal, T. Stijnen, M. M.B. Breteler, and J. C.M. Witteman Lipoprotein-Associated Phospholipase A2 Activity Is Associated With Risk of Coronary Heart Disease and Ischemic Stroke: The Rotterdam Study Circulation, February 8, 2005; 111(5): 570 - 575. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Iacoviello, A. Di Castelnuovo, M. Gattone, A. Pezzini, D. Assanelli, R. Lorenzet, E. Del Zotto, M. Colombo, E. Napoleone, C. Amore, et al. Polymorphisms of the Interleukin-1{beta} Gene Affect the Risk of Myocardial Infarction and Ischemic Stroke at Young Age and the Response of Mononuclear Cells to Stimulation In Vitro Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, January 1, 2005; 25(1): 222 - 227. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. P. Fortmann, E. Ford, M. H. Criqui, A. R. Folsom, T. B. Harris, Y. Hong, T. A. Pearson, D. Siscovick, F. Vinicor, and P. F. Wilson CDC/AHA Workshop on Markers of Inflammation and Cardiovascular Disease: Application to Clinical and Public Health Practice: Report From the Population Science Discussion Group Circulation, December 21, 2004; 110(25): e554 - e559. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. W.F. Wilson CDC/AHA Workshop on Markers of Inflammation and Cardiovascular Disease: Application to Clinical and Public Health Practice: Ability of Inflammatory Markers to Predict Disease in Asymptomatic Patients: A Background Paper Circulation, December 21, 2004; 110(25): e568 - e571. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Diomedi, A. Pietroiusti, M. Silvestrini, B. Rizzato, L. M. Cupini, F. Ferrante, A. Magrini, A. Bergamaschi, A. Galante, and G. Bernardi CagA-positive Helicobacter pylori strains may influence the natural history of atherosclerotic stroke Neurology, September 14, 2004; 63(5): 800 - 804. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. C. Suarez C-Reactive Protein Is Associated With Psychological Risk Factors of Cardiovascular Disease in Apparently Healthy Adults Psychosom Med, September 1, 2004; 66(5): 684 - 691. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. T. Fung, M. J. Stampfer, J. E. Manson, K. M. Rexrode, W. C. Willett, and F. B. Hu Prospective Study of Major Dietary Patterns and Stroke Risk in Women Stroke, September 1, 2004; 35(9): 2014 - 2019. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. I. Sokol, E. L. Portnay, J. P. Curtis, M. A. Nelson, P. R. Hebert, J. F. Setaro, and J. M. Foody Modulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system for the secondary prevention of stroke Neurology, July 27, 2004; 63(2): 208 - 213. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. K. Rutter, J. B. Meigs, L. M. Sullivan, R. B. D'Agostino Sr, and P. W.F. Wilson C-Reactive Protein, the Metabolic Syndrome, and Prediction of Cardiovascular Events in the Framingham Offspring Study Circulation, July 27, 2004; 110(4): 380 - 385. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. M Ridker, P. W.F. Wilson, and S. M. Grundy Should C-Reactive Protein Be Added to Metabolic Syndrome and to Assessment of Global Cardiovascular Risk? Circulation, June 15, 2004; 109(23): 2818 - 2825. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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F. O'Rourke, N. Dean, N. Akhtar, and A. Shuaib Current and future concepts in stroke prevention Can. Med. Assoc. J., March 30, 2004; 170(7): 1123 - 1133. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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V. Janardhan, P. A. Wolf, C. S. Kase, J. M. Massaro, R. B. D'Agostino, C. Franzblau, and P. W.F. Wilson Anticardiolipin Antibodies and Risk of Ischemic Stroke and Transient Ischemic Attack: The Framingham Cohort and Offspring Study Stroke, March 1, 2004; 35(3): 736 - 741. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Mascitelli and F. Pezzetta Anti-inflammatory Effect of Physical Activity Arch Intern Med, February 23, 2004; 164(4): 460 - 460. [Full Text] [PDF]
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P.J. Kelly, J.P. Kistler, V.E. Shih, R. Mandell, N. Atassi, M. Barron, H. Lee, S. Silveira, and K.L. Furie Inflammation, Homocysteine, and Vitamin B6 Status After Ischemic Stroke Stroke, January 1, 2004; 35(1): 12 - 15. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. J. Blake, N. Rifai, J. E. Buring, and P. M Ridker Blood Pressure, C-Reactive Protein, and Risk of Future Cardiovascular Events Circulation, December 16, 2003; 108(24): 2993 - 2999. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Schillinger, M. Exner, J. Amighi, W. Mlekusch, S. Sabeti, H. Rumpold, O. Wagner, and E. Minar Joint Effects of C-Reactive Protein and Glycated Hemoglobin in Predicting Future Cardiovascular Events of Patients With Advanced Atherosclerosis Circulation, November 11, 2003; 108(19): 2323 - 2328. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. L. Seliger, D. L. Gillen, D. Tirschwell, H. Wasse, B. R. Kestenbaum, and C. O. Stehman-Breen Risk Factors for Incident Stroke among Patients with End-Stage Renal Disease J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., October 1, 2003; 14(10): 2623 - 2631. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Di Napoli Editorial Comment--C-Reactive Protein and Vascular Risk in Stroke Patients: Potential Use for the Future Stroke, October 1, 2003; 34(10): 2468 - 2470. [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. F. Arenillas, J. Alvarez-Sabin, C. A. Molina, P. Chacon, J. Montaner, A. Rovira, B. Ibarra, and M. Quintana C-Reactive Protein Predicts Further Ischemic Events in First-Ever Transient Ischemic Attack or Stroke Patients With Intracranial Large-Artery Occlusive Disease Stroke, October 1, 2003; 34(10): 2463 - 2468. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. J. Lindsberg and A. J. Grau Inflammation and Infections as Risk Factors for Ischemic Stroke Stroke, October 1, 2003; 34(10): 2518 - 2532. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Chandalia, A. V. Cabo-Chan Jr, S. Devaraj, I. Jialal, S. M. Grundy, and N. Abate Elevated Plasma High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein Concentrations in Asian Indians Living in the United States J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., August 1, 2003; 88(8): 3773 - 3776. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. B. Ledue and N. Rifai Preanalytic and Analytic Sources of Variations in C-reactive Protein Measurement: Implications for Cardiovascular Disease Risk Assessment Clin. Chem., August 1, 2003; 49(8): 1258 - 1271. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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