This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) All Versions of this Article: 35/8/1886    most recent 01.STR.0000133687.33868.71v1 Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Permissions Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Allport, L. E. Articles by Davis, S. M. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Allport, L. E. Articles by Davis, S. M. Related Collections Glucose intolerance CT and MRI Acute Cerebral Infarction Computerized tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging

(Stroke. 2004;35:1886.)
© 2004 American Heart Association, Inc.

Original Contributions

Insular Cortical Ischemia Is Independently Associated With Acute Stress Hyperglycemia

Louise E. Allport, BMed, FRACP; Ken S. Butcher, MD, PhD, FRCP(C); Tracey A. Baird, MRCP; Lachlan MacGregor, MBBS, MmedSc; Patricia M. Desmond, MD, FRACR; Brian M. Tress, MD, FRACR; Peter Colman, MD, FRACP Stephen M. Davis, MD, FRCP, FRACP

From the Departments of Neurology (L.E.A., K.S.B., T.A.B., S.M.D.), Clinical Epidemiology (L.M.), Radiology (P.M.D., B.M.T.), and Diabetes and Endocrinology (P.C.), Royal Melbourne Hospital, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.

Correspondence to Dr Stephen M. Davis, Director of Neurology, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia. E-mail stephen.davis{at}mh.org.au

	Abstract

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusion References

 
Background and Purpose— Acute poststroke hyperglycemia has been associated with larger infarct volumes and a cortical location, regardless of diabetes status. Stress hyperglycemia has been attributed to activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis but never a specific cortical location. We tested the hypothesis that damage to the insular cortex, a site with autonomic connectivity, results in hyperglycemia reflecting sympathoadrenal dysregulation.

Methods— Diffusion-weighted MRI, glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA_1c), and blood glucose measurements were obtained in 31 patients within 24 hours of ischemic stroke onset. Acute diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) lesion volumes were measured, and involvement of the insular cortex was assessed on T2-weighted images.

Results— Median admission glucose was significantly higher in patients with insular cortical ischemia (8.6 mmol/L; n=14) compared with those without (6.5 mmol/L; n=17; P=0.006). Multivariate linear regression demonstrated that insular cortical ischemia was a significant independent predictor of glucose level (P=0.001), as was pre-existing diabetes mellitus (P=0.008). After controlling for the effect of insular cortical ischemia, DWI lesion volume was not associated with higher glucose levels (P=0.849). There was no association between HbA_1c and glucose level (P=0.737).

Conclusions— Despite the small sample size, insular cortical ischemia appeared to be associated with the production of poststroke hyperglycemia. This relationship is independent of pre-existing glycemic status and infarct volume. Neuroendocrine dysregulation after insular ischemia may be 1 aspect of a more generalized acute stress response. Future studies of poststroke hyperglycemia should account for the effect of insular cortical ischemia.

Key Words: glucose • hyperglycemia • stroke, acute • magnetic resonance imaging, diffusion-weighted

	Introduction

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusion References

 
Hyperglycemia is present in 20% to 40% of patients with acute ischemic stroke, regardless of a history of diabetes mellitus.^1,2 The presence of hyperglycemia, regardless of diabetes status, is associated with increased mortality and morbidity, greater stroke severity, and larger infarct volumes measured on cerebral computed tomography (CT) scan.^1–7 This may reflect the association between elevated lactate and impaired penumbral salvage.⁸ It has been demonstrated that persistent poststroke hyperglycemia predicts infarct expansion and worse clinical outcome independent of premorbid glycemic status.⁹

As a biological marker of glycemic homeostasis, hyperglycemia and elevated glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA_1c) have been used to diagnose and define poorly controlled diabetes.¹⁰ Currently, there is no accepted definition of stress hyperglycemia.² Elevated blood glucose in the presence of normal HbA_1c, regardless of diabetes status, may therefore represent a stress response. Stress hyperglycemia has been reported in 5% to 36% of acute stroke patients.^1,3 The etiology and duration of hyperglycemia relative to the ischemic brain insult remains unclear. It may reflect elevated sympathoadrenal tone, increased stress hormones such as cortisol and noradrenaline, or damage to central autonomic control sites.^6,11–13 The rise and fall of glucose after stroke parallels a neuroendocrine release profile.¹² Stress hyperglycemia in acute stroke may be caused by either severe or catastrophic stroke, or unmasking of occult diabetes.^3,4,11 It may reflect a nonspecific response to brain ischemia or damage to a specific central location. Although previous studies have linked hyperglycemia and stroke size, these have not evaluated whether infarct location is specifically linked to glucose level.

The insular cortex (IC) is a site with autonomic efferent projections.¹⁴ Stimulation and damage to the insula have been shown to clinically and experimentally have a number of autonomic effects, including an elevation of sympathoadrenal tone and sudden cardiac death.^15,16 Therefore, damage to the insula may result in elevated glucose levels in the context of sympathoadrenal dysregulation. Using MRI and glucose measurements, we tested the hypothesis that acute ischemia of the IC is associated with admission hyperglycemia.

	Methods

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusion References

 
Patients
Thirty-one patients presenting with anterior circulation ischemic stroke syndromes within 24 hours of symptom onset were included. Stroke onset was taken as the time neurological dysfunction was first observed. When patients awoke with symptoms, were unable to communicate, or were unaware of their deficits, onset time was regarded as the time they were last known to be symptom-free. All patients had a National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score of 4 and a premorbid modified Rankin score of <2. Patients with a history of previous stroke or contraindication to MRI were excluded. Patients were excluded from analysis if there was resolution of their neurological syndrome or no measurable diffusion-weighted lesion.

Plasma glucose and HbA_1c were measured on admission. Subjects were included regardless of glucose level. The presence of prestroke diabetes was based on the reported history or treatment with hypoglycemic agents. Time to glucose testing was measured from the time of stroke onset to sample receipt into the laboratory. Acute stress hyperglycemia was defined as an elevation of blood glucose level (8 mmol/L) in the presence of normal HbA_1c (<6.2%) regardless of diabetes status. Human Research Ethics Committee approval and informed consent was obtained for all patients.

MRI Protocol
MRI studies were performed at admission and on days 3 through 5 (subacute) using a 1.5-T echo planar imaging (EPI)-equipped whole-body scanner (Signa Horizon SR120; General Electric). Sequences included a T1-weighted sagittal localizer and diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) obtained using a multislice, single-shot spin-echo EPI sequence with 16 6-mm plus 1-mm gap slices. Matrix size was 256x256, field of view 40x40 cm, and repetition time/echo time 6000/107 ms. Diffusion gradient strength was varied between 0 and 22 mT/m, resulting in 3 b values of increasing magnitude from 0 to 1000 s/mm. Isotropic DWI images were obtained by averaging the signal from all orthogonal directions with the highest diffusion weighting (b=1000).

Image Analysis
Volumetric analysis of DWI lesions was performed with Medx Software (Sensor Systems) by outlining regions of interest (ROIs) on each image using a semiautomated pixel-wise thresholding technique.¹⁷ ROI and planimetric volume measurements were determined by a single investigator blinded to all clinical data. The intraobserver and interobserver variability for DWI lesion volume measurement within our group is <5%.¹⁷ The IC was identified on the acute T2-weighted images (b=0; DWI). It was defined anatomically as the region of cortical gray matter at the base of the Sylvian fissure medial to the frontoparietal and temporal opercula. The flow void of the middle cerebral artery, located on its surface, was used to divide the insula into anterior and posterior portions.¹⁴ Insular cortical lesion involvement was dichotomized on a yes/no basis by 2 investigators blinded to all clinical data (=0.87).

Statistical Analysis
Multivariate linear regression was used to assess the effect of acute insular cortical ischemia, acute and subacute DWI lesion volume, time to glucose measurement, pre-existing diabetes, age, systolic blood pressure, HbA_1c, and NIHSS on admission glucose level. Glucose and DWI volume values were log transformed. HbA_1c, age, systolic blood pressure, NIHSS, and time to glucose measurement were assessed as continuous variables. Variables were retained in the final model if they appeared to be significant explanatory factors (P<0.05) or potential confounders. Standard regression diagnostics were used to assess linear regression assumptions and to identify potentially influential observations in the data set. There was no evidence of interaction between covariates, and no individual observations appeared to exert undue influence, particularly in relation to the estimated effect of insular involvement.

The effect of each explanatory variable is expressed as the estimated ratio of glucose level per unit increase in the explanatory variable. The effect of DWI lesion volume is given in terms of the ratio of glucose level for every doubling of DWI lesion volume. Statistical analysis was performed using Stata Version 7.0 (StataCorp).

	Results

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusion References

 
Patient Characteristics
The median interval between stroke onset and MRI was 13 hours (range 3 to 23). Admission hyperglycemia was present in 11 of 31 (35%) patients. Of these hyperglycemic patients, 5 (45%) had pre-existing diabetes and elevated HbA_1c, 2 (18%) had pre-existing diabetes and a normal HbA_1c, and 4 (36%) were nondiabetic with a normal HbA_1c. Therefore, on the basis of our definition, 6 patients (55%) had acute stress hyperglycemia. Six of the 20 normoglycemic patients had pre-existing diabetes. Fourteen patients had DWI abnormalities involving the IC (IC+) and 17 did not (IC–). The patient characteristics categorized as IC+ and IC– are summarized in Table 1. Representative DWI examples are shown in Figure 1. The median time interval between stroke onset and admission blood glucose measurement was 7.5 hours (range 1.5 to 18) for IC+ patients and 13 hours (1.5 to 24) for IC– patients (P=0.17).

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   TABLE 1. Baseline Data

View larger version (50K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. Diffusion-weighted images. A, Diabetic patient: glucose 17 mmol/L and a large DWI lesion volume (130 mL) involving the entire IC. B, Nondiabetic patient: glucose 8.3 mmol/L and a small DWI lesion volume (4 mL) involving the posterior insula only. C, Diabetic patient: glucose 6.7 mmol/L and a moderate DWI lesion volume (22 mL) sparing the IC.

Insular Cortical Ischemia
IC+ patients had significantly higher median admission glucose levels (8.6 mmol/L) compared with IC– patients (6.5 mmol/L; P=0.006). Median acute DWI lesion volume was significantly larger in the IC+ group (13 mL) compared with the IC– group (3 mL; P=0.003). Of those patients with insular involvement, the incidence of hyperglycemia (>8 mmol/L) was 60% (3 of 5 patients) in those with left-sided lesions and 66% (6 of 9) in those with right-sided lesions. Although there were more right-sided insular infarcts in the IC+ group, the proportion with hyperglycemia was similar.

Nine patients had DWI abnormalities involving the entire IC and 5 involving the posterior insula only. Every patient in the posterior insular group had an admission glucose of 8 mmol/L. Median admission blood glucose level was similar in patients with entire insular ischemia (7.3 mmol/L, range 5.5 to 17.0) and those with posterior insular ischemia only (9.4 mmol/L, range 8.2 to 15.9; P=0.167). This occurred despite the fact that patients with ischemia of the entire IC had significantly larger DWI volumes (median 50 mL, range 7 to 148) compared with those with ischemia of the posterior insula only (5 mL, range 3 to 12; P=0.003; see Figure 3). One patient with isolated involvement of the anterior insula had a glucose of 5.3 mmol/L.

View larger version (12K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 3. Admission glucose level (A) and DWI lesion volume (B) in patients categorized according to the degree of insular ischemia (no involvement [IC–] versus involvement [IC+] of the entire or posterior IC). Patients with ischemia of the posterior insula only had similar glucose levels to those with ischemia of the entire insula despite their significantly smaller volumes. Horizontal lines indicate the median values.

Acute Stroke Severity
The distribution of admission NIHSS values was bimodal, with a median value of 14 (range 3 to 26). There was a strong correlation between admission NIHSS and DWI volume (Spearman =0.572; P<0.001). There was also a correlation between NIHSS and glucose level (Spearman =0.398; P=0.027).

Hyperglycemia Predictors
The results of the final multiple regression model are shown in Table 2. Univariate regression indicated a weak relationship between DWI volume and admission glucose (ratio=1.03 per doubling of DWI volume; 95% CI, 0.983 to 1.089; P=0.188; Figure 2A). However, after controlling for the effect of insular cortical ischemia on multiple regression, there was no association between acute DWI infarct volume and glucose (Figure 2B). Admission glucose levels were only 1.004x higher for every doubling in DWI lesion volume (95% CI, 0.9614 to 1.0487; P=0.849). At any given infarct volume, whether large or small, IC+ patients had glucose values 1.392x higher than IC– patients (P=0.001). The relationship between insular ischemia and hyperglycemia was independent of all other variables in the multiple regression model, including diabetes and NIHSS.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window]   TABLE 2. Final Multivariate Regression Model Showing the Effect of Each Variable on Acute Glucose Level

View larger version (9K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2. The apparent association between log (ln) admission glucose level and DWI volume on univariate analysis (A) disappears after controlling for the effect of insular cortical ischemia (B). At any given infarct volume, IC+ patients (circles, solid line) had glucose levels 1.4x higher than IC– patients (triangles, broken line).

Patients with pre-existing diabetes had glucose values 1.284x higher than nondiabetics (P=0.008). Glucose values increased 1.071-fold for every 10 mm Hg increase in systolic blood pressure (P=0.001). Increasing age was associated with a decrease in glucose level, corresponding to a ratio of 0.89 per 10 years of age (P=0.017). The time interval to glucose measurement was shorter for IC+ patients; however, it was not an independent predictor of admission glucose level on multiple regression (ie, the observed increase in glucose values for the IC+ group was not explained by earlier glucose measurement).

Admission glucose levels increased only 1.010x for every unit increase in NIHSS (ratio=1.010; 95% CI, 0.997 to 1.024; P=0.133). Including NIHSS in the regression model did not alter the effect of insular ischemia on glucose levels. There was no evidence of an association between HbA_1c and glucose level (ratio=1.012 per percentage unit increase in HbA_1c; 95% CI, 0.942 to 1.088; P=0.737). Patients with an HBA_1c of >6.2% were not more likely to have an elevated admission glucose (Fisher exact test, P=0.423). In addition, patients with an elevated HbA_1c who were IC+ had higher glucose levels than IC– patients at any given HbA_1c value, suggesting there may also be a "stress response" in patients with prestroke hyperglycemia (ie, elevated HbA_1c).

Subacute DWI Studies
Thirty patients were reimaged on days 3 through 5 (1 IC+ patient died). DWI lesion volumes remained larger in the IC+ group (Table 1). The median ratio of subacute to acute DWI volume was 2.26 (range 0.53 to 83.51). When controlling for the effect of insular ischemia using multiple regression, the ratio of glucose per doubling of subacute DWI lesion volume was only 1.014 (95% CI, 0.977 to 1.052; P=0.448).

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusion References

 
This is the first study to demonstrate that acute ischemia of a specific cortical region, namely the IC, may contribute to poststroke hyperglycemia. Furthermore, this is independent of DWI infarct volume, pre-existing glycemic status, and clinical stroke severity.

Poststroke Acute Stress Hyperglycemia
Experimental animal models indicate that the level of plasma glucose at the time of focal cerebral ischemia is an important determinant of brain injury.¹⁸ As early as 1976, Melamed demonstrated that a significant proportion of stroke patients develop hyperglycemia as part of a "stress response."¹⁹ We defined stress hyperglycemia as an elevated blood glucose level in the presence of a normal HbA_1c regardless of diabetes status. The incidence of stress hyperglycemia in our study was 19%, consistent with previous studies.^1,3 As a measure of glucose homeostasis, HbA_1c value has been used to estimate prestroke glycemic status. We found no relationship between HbA_1c and admission blood glucose level, consistent with the hypothesis that an acute stress response underlies the hyperglycemia observed in some stroke patients. Prestroke glycemic status has not been found to predict stroke severity and mortality in most studies.^2,4,5,7 It has been suggested that the degree of hyperglycemia reflects the severity of the cerebral insult. In our study, acute NIHSS was used as a measure of stroke severity. There was an association between stroke severity and hyperglycemia that was also suggested by multiple regression. However, the effect of insular cortical ischemia on acute glucose level was independent of stroke severity.

The term stress hyperglycemia implies a transient phenomenon, and its duration remains controversial. A modest increase in blood glucose level is most likely to occur within the first 6 hours of stroke onset.^20,21 Poststroke glucose levels then decline spontaneously during subsequent hours in the absence of therapy directed at normoglycemia.²¹ Whether poststroke glucose samples are collected randomly, after fasting, and with or without an oral glucose tolerance test remains controversial, and methodological superiority in quantifying abnormal glucose homeostasis after stroke has not been demonstrated.^2,10 Clearly defining the temporal profile of stress hyperglycemia has implications for the duration of proposed glucose-lowering therapies after stroke.

Central Control of Glucose Homeostasis and the Stress Response
There is evidence that stress hyperglycemia is a central phenomenon.²² The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is integral to this neuroendocrine stress response. Implicated in the pathogenesis is an increase in sympathetic nervous system activity. The hypothalamus is the most studied central site with respect to glucose metabolism. Animal studies have shown that stimulation of the hypothalamus results in hyperglycemia.²² Although a cortical site responsible for governing glucose homeostasis is presumed to exist, a specific location has never been identified.^12,22,23

The IC is interconnected with subcortical autonomic centers including the hypothalamus.^14,24 The insula has been demonstrated to be a cortical region that can influence autonomic function and, in particular, sympathetic nervous system tone.^14–16,24 Clinical studies of insular cortical stroke have documented an elevation of sympathetic nervous system activity, increased serum catecholamines, ECG abnormalities, and myocardial injury.²⁵ Previous studies have demonstrated lateralization of autonomic function within the cerebral hemispheres.¹⁶ We found no evidence of insular lateralization with respect to hyperglycemia. Given the evidence for the role of the IC in autonomic nervous system regulation, it is possible that the hyperglycemia in our patients is part of a more generalized elevation in sympathetic tone, possibly mediated by the abolition of inhibitory cortical control mechanisms.

IC and Infarct Volume
In our study, patients with insular cortical ischemia, regardless of acute or subacute infarct volume, had significantly higher glucose values than those without insular ischemia. Any possible association between DWI volume and glucose level disappeared after controlling for the effect of insular ischemia. This suggests that the association between volume and glucose seen initially on univariate analysis may be a result of confounding by the presence of insular cortical ischemia. In contrast to previous studies linking hyperglycemia and infarct volume, we failed to demonstrate any significant relationship, regardless of infarct location. This may be explained by the use of cerebral CT for volumetric analysis in previous studies as opposed to the more sensitive EPI modalities (DWI) used in this study.

Larger infarcts were more likely to involve the IC. This was not surprising given that the insula is perfused by the superior and inferior divisions of the middle cerebral artery and may indicate a more proximal vessel occlusion. Patients with ischemia of the posterior insula only, representing smaller divisional infarcts, had similar glycemic profiles to those patients with ischemia of the entire IC despite their much larger lesion volumes (Figure 3). This supports the importance of infarct location within the insula as opposed to infarct volume in the genesis of hyperglycemia. Our data do not rule out the possibility of an additional volume effect. However, patients with insular cortical ischemia, regardless of infarct size, had admission glucose values 1.4x greater than those without. This relationship was both statistically significant and independent of infarct volume.

There are a number of limitations to our study. The small sample size mandates confirmation of our findings and limits the ability of this study to detect any effect of hemispheric lateralization on stress hyperglycemia. There is also a lack of other indices of an acute stress response such as cortisol or noradrenaline that is currently being addressed in a larger prospective study. Although our results do not establish cause and effect, they do provide evidence to support the hypothesis that insular cortical dysfunction may play a pathophysiological role in the production of poststroke hyperglycemia as 1 aspect of an acute stress response.

	Conclusion

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusion References

 
The IC is the first cortical site found to be associated with poststroke hyperglycemia. This relationship is independent of pre-existing glycemic status, stroke severity, and infarct volume. This suggests that IC injury may result in acute dysregulation of glucose metabolism consistent with a stress response. Therefore, future studies of poststroke hyperglycemia should account for the effect of insular cortical ischemia.

	Acknowledgments

 
L.E.A. was supported by an Australian Postgraduate Award Scholarship (University of Melbourne) and the Royal Melbourne Hospital Neuroscience Foundation. We thank the stroke research nurses and radiographers of the Royal Melbourne Hospital for their assistance with this study.

Received February 24, 2004; revision received April 7, 2004; accepted May 6, 2004.

	References

Top Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusion References

 

1. Kiers L, Davis SM, Larkins R, Hopper J, Tress B, Rossiter SC, Carlin J, Ratnaike S. Stroke topography and outcome in relation to hyperglycaemia and diabetes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1992; 55: 263–270.[Abstract]
2. Capes SE, Hunt D, Malmberg K, Pathak P, Gerstein HC. Stress hyperglycemia and prognosis of stroke in nondiabetic and diabetic patients: a systematic overview. Stroke. 2001; 32: 2426–2432.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
3. Candelise L, Landi G, Orazio EN, Boccardi E. Prognostic significance of hyperglycemia in acute stroke. Arch Neurol. 1985; 42: 661–663.[Abstract]
4. Murros K, Fogelholm R, Kettunen S, Vuorela AL, Valve J. Blood glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin, and outcome of ischemic brain infarction. J Neurol Sci. 1992; 111: 59–64.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
5. Woo E, Chan YW, Yu YL, Huang CY. Admission glucose level in relation to mortality and morbidity outcome in 252 stroke patients. Stroke. 1988; 19: 185–191.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
6. Bruno A, Biller J, Adams HP Jr, Clarke WR, Woolson RF, Williams LS, Hansen MD. Acute blood glucose level and outcome from ischemic stroke. Trial of ORG 10172 in acute stroke treatment (TOAST) investigators. Neurology. 1999; 52: 280–284.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
7. Jorgensen H, Nakayama H, Raaschou HO, Olsen TS. Stroke in patients with diabetes. The Copenhagen Stroke Study. Stroke. 1994; 25: 1977–1984.[Abstract]
8. Parsons MW, Barber PA, Desmond PM, Baird TA, Darby DG, Byrnes G, Tress BM, Davis SM. Acute hyperglycemia adversely affects stroke outcome: a magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy study. Ann Neurol. 2002; 52: 20–28.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
9. Baird TA, Parsons MW, Phanh T, Butcher KS, Desmond PM, Tress BM, Colman PG, Chambers BR, Davis SM. Persistent poststroke hyperglycemia is independently associated with infarct expansion and worse clinical outcome. Stroke. 2003; 34: 2208–2214.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
10. Gray CS, Scott JF, French JM, Alberti KG, O’Connell JE. Prevalence and prediction of unrecognised diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance following acute stroke. Age Ageing. 2004; 33: 71–77.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
11. Wass CT, Lanier WL. Glucose modulation of ischemic brain injury: review and clinical recommendations. Mayo Clin Proc. 1996; 71: 801–812.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
12. Mitchell AJ. Clinical implications of poststroke hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunction: a critical literature review. J Stroke Cerebrovascular Dis. 1997; 6: 377–388.[CrossRef]
13. O’Neill PA, Davies I, Fullerton KJ, Bennett D. Stress hormone and blood glucose response following acute stroke in the elderly. Stroke. 1991; 22: 842–847.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
14. Oppenheimer S. The anatomy and physiology of cortical mechanisms of cardiac control. Stroke. 1993; 24: I3–I5.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
15. Cechetto DF. Experimental cerebral ischemic lesions and autonomic and cardiac effects in cats and rats. Stroke. 1993; 24: I6–I9.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
16. Oppenheimer SM, Gelb A, Girvin JP, Hachinski VC. Cardiovascular effects of human insular cortex stimulation. Neurology. 1992; 42: 1727–1732.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
17. Barber PA, Darby DG, Desmond PM, Yang Q, Gerraty RP, Jolley D, Donnan GA, Tress BM, Davis SM. Prediction of stroke outcome with echoplanar perfusion- and diffusion-weighted MRI. Neurology. 1998; 51: 418–426.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
18. Pulsinelli WA, Waldman S, Rawlinson D, Plum F. Moderate hyperglycemia augments ischemic brain damage: a neuropathologic study in the rat. Neurology. 1982; 32: 1239–1246.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
19. Melamed E. Reactive hyperglycaemia in patients with acute stroke. J Neurol Sci. 1976; 29: 267–275.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
20. Christensen H, Boysen G. Blood glucose increases early after stroke onset: a study on serial measurements of blood glucose in acute stroke. Eur J Neurol. 2002; 9: 297–301.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
21. Gray CS, Hildreth AJ, Alberti GK, O’Connell JE. Poststroke hyperglycemia: natural history and immediate management. Stroke. 2004; 35: 122–126.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
22. Porte D Jr, Woods SC. Neural regulation of islet hormones and its role in energy balance and stress hyperglycemia. In: Ellenberg M, Rifkin H, eds. Diabetes Mellitus: Theory and Practice, 3rd edition. New Hyde Park, NY: Medical Examination Publishing Company; 1983: 267–294.
23. Murros K, Fogelholm R, Kettunen S, Vuorela AL. Serum cortisol and outcome of ischemic brain infarction. J Neurol Sci. 1993; 116: 12–17.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
24. Cechetto DF. Identification of a cortical site for stress-induced cardiovascular dysfunction. Integr Physiol Behav Sci. 1994; 29: 362–373.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
25. Sander D, Winbeck K, Klingelhofer J, Etgen T, Conrad B. Prognostic relevance of pathological sympathetic activation after acute thromboembolic stroke. Neurology. 2001; 57: 833–838.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

This article has been cited by other articles:

				A. A. Wong, P. J. Schluter, R. D. Henderson, J. D. O'Sullivan, and S. J. Read Natural history of blood glucose within the first 48 hours after ischemic stroke Neurology, March 25, 2008; 70(13): 1036 - 1041. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				H. Ay, E. M. Arsava, W. J. Koroshetz, and A. G. Sorensen Middle Cerebral Artery Infarcts Encompassing the Insula Are More Prone to Growth Stroke, February 1, 2008; 39(2): 373 - 378. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Oppenheimer Plus Ca Change ... Stroke, February 1, 2008; 39(2): 249 - 249. [Full Text] [PDF]

				F. C. Moreton, M. McCormick, and K. W Muir Insular Cortex Hypoperfusion and Acute Phase Blood Glucose After Stroke: A CT Perfusion Study Stroke, February 1, 2007; 38(2): 407 - 410. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				L. Allport, T. Baird, K. Butcher, L. MacGregor, J. Prosser, P. Colman, and S. Davis Frequency and Temporal Profile of Poststroke Hyperglycemia Using Continuous Glucose Monitoring Diabetes Care, August 1, 2006; 29(8): 1839 - 1844. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M Pasquini and D Leys Cardiovascular and metabolic changes in insular infarcts: a delayed phenomenon? J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, July 1, 2006; 77(7): 813 - 813. [Full Text] [PDF]

				J A Pettersen, J H W Pexman, P A Barber, A M Demchuk, A M Buchan, and M D Hill Insular cortical ischaemia does not independently predict acute hypertension or hyperglycaemia within 3 h of onset J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, July 1, 2006; 77(7): 885 - 887. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. A. Frontera, A. Fernandez, J. Claassen, M. Schmidt, H. C. Schumacher, K. Wartenberg, R. Temes, A. Parra, N. D. Ostapkovich, and S. A. Mayer Hyperglycemia After SAH: Predictors, Associated Complications, and Impact on Outcome Stroke, January 1, 2006; 37(1): 199 - 203. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. D. Hill and J. D. Bisognano Leukoaraiosis: The brain under pressure: Target for treatment? Neurology, June 14, 2005; 64(11): 1832 - 1833. [Full Text] [PDF]

				H. Christensen, L. Allport, K. Butcher, and S. Davis Insular Lesions and Hyperglycemia in Acute Stroke Revisited * Response Stroke, February 1, 2005; 36(2): 229 - 230. [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. Alvarez-Sabin, C. A. Molina, M. Ribo, J. F. Arenillas, J. Montaner, R. Huertas, E. Santamarina, and M. Rubiera Impact of Admission Hyperglycemia on Stroke Outcome After Thrombolysis: Risk Stratification in Relation to Time to Reperfusion Stroke, November 1, 2004; 35(11): 2493 - 2498. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) All Versions of this Article: 35/8/1886    most recent 01.STR.0000133687.33868.71v1 Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Permissions Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Allport, L. E. Articles by Davis, S. M. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Allport, L. E. Articles by Davis, S. M. Related Collections Glucose intolerance CT and MRI Acute Cerebral Infarction Computerized tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging